UMEM Educational Pearls

Buprenorphine is a partial opioid receptor agonist that has a higher binding affinity than pure opioid agonists. There can be unease in managing acute pain in patients sustained on buprenorphine for opioid use disorder due to many factors.

The main barriers to effective pain management in these patients are:

1. Opioid-Induced Hyperalgesia
   1. Patients maintained on buprenorphine can have an increased sensitivity to pain.
   2. Consider using a multimodal approach that optimizes non-opioid analgesics, such as acetaminophen and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
2. Opioid Tolerance
   1. Patients maintained on buprenorphine require higher doses of opioids to treat acute pain due to the decreased effectiveness of opioids over time.
   2. As in hyperalgesia, a multimodal approach can be beneficial.
   3. Higher doses of supplemental opioids will be required in these patients compared with opioid-naïve patients.
   4. Titrate supplemental opioids to effect and monitor for toxicity.
3. Opioid Withdrawal
   1. Opioid withdrawal symptoms can contribute to stress and anxiety, increasing pain sensitivity.
   2. To prevent withdrawal symptoms it is appropriate to continue buprenorphine throughout the episode of acute pain.
   3. The patient's typical home dose of buprenorphine can be utilized.

Take Home Points
In general, the treatment strategy for acute pain in patients on buprenorphine should be:

• Optimize non-opioid analgesia.
• Use supplemental opioids when needed.
  • Will likely require higher doses.
  • Titrate to effect.
  • Monitor for toxicity.
• Continue buprenorphine therapy at home dose throughout the acute pain episode.

Show References

Mechanical Ventilation in COPD

• Mechanical ventilation of the patient with obstructive lung disease can be challenging, primarily due to the presence of dynamic hyperinflation.
• In the initial phase of ventilation, it is important to prevent complications of hyperinflation and not to target normalization of blood gas values.
• Recommended initial ventilator settings include:
  • Mode: Volume assist-control
  • Inspiratory flow waveform: square
  • Tidal volume: 6-8 ml/kg PBW
  • RR: 12 bpm
  • Inspiratory flow: 60-90 L/min
• The effect of PEEP is variable with each patient.  When titrating PEEP, be sure to frequently measure plateau pressure and discontinue titration should Pplat increase.

Show References

• Most seizures resolve spontaneously, however, seizures that persist >5 minutes or recur without the patient returning to their baseline should be treated expeditiously with benzodiazepines and antiepileptic medications.
• A subset of patients may continue to have electrographic seizures despite cessation of their convulsive seizure activity.
  • Prior studies described 26-52% of patients develop nonconvulsive seizures after resolution of convulsive status epilepticus.
• The recent Established Status Epilepticus Treatment Trial (ESETT) compared fosphenytoin, levetiracetam, and valproic acid in aborting seizures and improving responsiveness in patients who did not response to initial treatment with benzodiazepines.
  • EEG was not required for this trial, but 58% (278/478) had an EEG within 24 hours after seizure onset.
    • Of those who had an EEG, 14% (39/278) had electrographic seizures.
  • For patients who had clinical treatment success, 13% (13/102) were found to have electrographic seizures.

Bottom Line: Persistent or recurrent seizures are not uncommon in the first 24 hours after status epilepticus even in patients with resolved clinical seizure activity. Early use of EEG can help identify patients who need further escalation of treatment.

Show References

Exercise and Covid-19

The majority of COVID-19 cases fall into the mild-to-moderate category, with symptoms lasting less than 6 weeks on average.

The disease presents a challenge for clinicians seeking to offer counsel for patients wishing to return to exercise.

A recent cohort study in Germany looked at 100 patients (avg. age 49, 53% male) who had recovered from Covid-19 infection.

Most had been healthy, with no pre-existing medical conditions, before becoming infected. 

The group had cardiac MRI (CMR) performed.

Average time interval between Covid-19 diagnosis and CMR was 71 days.

Cardiac involvement was seen in 78% of patients and ongoing myocardial inflammation in 60%.

Evidence based return to activity guidelines being developed are more conservative than in the past with other viral infections

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11420-020-09777-1/tables/1

Show References

Anion gap metabolic acidosis is often found in ED patients. It can be difficult to distinguish between toxic alcohol (TA) ingestion and alcoholic ketoacidosis (AKA).  A retrospective study attempted to identify risk factors associated with AKA when TA ingestion was the alternative diagnosis.

New York City poison center data was reviewed from Jan 1, 2000 to April 30, 2019.

Case definition of AKA included

1. Documented alcohol use disorder
2. Urine or serum ketones or elevated blood beta-hydroxybutyrate concentration
3. Anion gap >=14 mmol/L

Case definition of TA ingestion

1. Detectable methanol or ethylene glycol concentration

Results

• 699 patients were screened.
• AKA diagnosis: 86
• TA ingestion: 36

Univariate analysis showed following variables to be associated with AKA diagnosis

• Ethanol level: OR 1.007 (95% CI: 1.001 – 1.013)
• Anion gap: OR 1.063 (95% CI: 1.007-1.122)
• Age (years): OR 1.036 (95% CI: 1.005 – 1.068)

Multivariate logistic regression showed elevated ethanol concentration was associated with increased odd of AKA diagnosis 

Conclusion

• In this retrospective study, the odd of AKA diagnosis increased as ethanol concentration increased.
• TA ingestion remains challenging diagonsis without the availability of obtaining real time TA concentration.

Show References

Show References

Despite a lack of formal guidelines and evidence, lactate measurement has become a component of many pediatric emergency sepsis quality programs, with one survey showing that up to 68% of responding pediatric emergency medicine providers routinely measured it.

The Surviving Sepsis Campaign, last updated in February 2020, could not make a recommendation on the use of lactate in pediatric patients with suspected shock. The authors did state that lactate levels are often measured during the evaluation of septic shock if the lab can be obtained rapidly. However, lactate levels alone would not be an appropriate screening test.

Show References

• Acute ischemic stroke patients are commonly admitted to an ICU after receiving IV tPA to be closely monitored for potential complications.
• Current post-tPA protocol requires frequent vital signs and neurological assessments up to every 15 minutes, thereby requiring 1:1 or 1:2 nurse-to-patient ratio.
• Studies have shown that stroke severity is a strong predictor of the need for critical care interventions for post-tPA patients, where patients with an NIHSS score ≥10 have an ~8x higher odds of requiring critical care interventions than those with NIHSS <10.
• A low-intensity post-tPA monitoring protocol (Figure 1) for patients with NIHSS <10 and no critical care needs has been found to be safe in a small single center study.
  • These low risk patients were admitted with telemetry monitoring and 1:3 nurse-to-patient ratio after an initial period of q15 min standard monitoring.
  • An international, multicenter, randomized controlled trial is being planned to study this further.

• This strategy may help streamline care and utilize hospital resources more efficiently in the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond.

Bottom Line: Patients with NIHSS <10 may be safe for low-intensity post-tPA monitoring if they do not require critical care after an initial period of q15 min standard monitoring for the first 2 hours.

Show References

A single center (Nebraska, USA), retrospective analysis investigated the prevalence of intubation during hospital stay for 105 patients who had COVID-19 between March 24 to May 5, 2020 (1).   40 patients underwent awake proning vs. 60 patients did not undergo awake proning.

After adjusting for either SOFA or APACHE scores, patients with awake proning were associated with lower Hazard Ratios of intubation for SOFA (HR 0.30, 95% CI 0.09-0.96, p=0.043) and APACHE (HR 0.30, 95%CI 0.1-0.91, p=0.034).

Discussion

While this US study seemed promising, another Brazilian study being published earlier in July 2020 showed no difference in the prevalence of intubation between COVID-19 patients with proning or without proning (2).

These 2 studies highlighted the nature of this disease: high practice variability, uncertainty of therapeutic modalities.  However, the complications from awake proning had been very low.

Conclusion:

Awake proning for hypoxic COVID-19 patients is a promising intervention but we will need more studies.  In the meanwhile, we can try this therapeutic modality as the risk is low.

Show References

A recent retrospective observational study looked at the association of oral antibiotics (primarily fluroquinolones) and tendon rupture.

Outcome data is very interesting for our practice, deviates from traditional teaching.

Population:  1 million Medicare fee for service beneficiaries from 2007-2016 (>65 years old)

Antibiotics queried:  Seven total oral antibiotics of mixed class:

1. Fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin)
2. Other:  Amoxicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanate, azithromycin and cephalexin.

Outcome measures:  all combined tendon ruptures and 3 by anatomic site (Achilles, rotator cuff {RC} and other)

Results:  Of the 3 quinolones, only LEVOfloxacin showed a significant increase in risk of tendon rupture (16% for RC) and (120% for Achilles) in a 1 month window. The others did not show an increased risk

Among the other antibiotics, cephalexin showed an increase risk across all anatomic sites.

The authors note that the risk with levofloxacin never exceeded the risk of cephalexin in any comparison!

Show References

Study Question: What is the association of relative hypotension (degree and duration of MPP deficit) in patients with vasopressor-dependent shock with the incidence of new significant AKI and major adverse kidney events (MAKE)? 

• Mean Perfusion Pressure (MPP) = MAP - CVP
• MAKE-14: composite measure of death, new initiation of RRT, or doubling of serum creatinine from the premorbid level at Day 14
• Basal MPP estimated using pre-illness BP readings in the chart, basal CVP estimated using prior echo findings or estimated mean values

Methods:

• Multicenter, prospective observational cohort study with 302 patients
• Notable exclusion criteria:
  • age < 40, trauma as primary reason for ICU admission, active bleeding, unavailability of at least two preillness BP readings, pregnancy, "any condition specifically requiring a higher or a lower blood pressure target in the view of a treating clinician"

Results:

• for every percentage increase in the time-weighted average MPP deficit, the odds of developing new significant AKI and MAKE-14 increased by 5.6% (95% CI, 2.2–9.1; P = 0.001) and 5.9% (95% CI, 2.2–9.8; P = 0.002), respectively.
• Relationships between the risks of developing new significant AKI or MAKE-14 and the percentage of time spent with a MAP < 65 mm Hg were not statistically significant 

Take-aways:

• Critically ill patients in shock who had higher and longer degrees of relative hypotension compared to their baseline BPs had a higher incidence of adverse kidney outcomes
• Sidenote: also consider venous congestion/volume overload when thinking about end-organ damage (e.g. MPP not just MAP)

Show References

With a national shortage of octreotide an alternative treatment plan had to be implemented at our institution for patients presenting with variceal bleeding.

Drug references recommend a continuous infusion of vasopressin at 0.2 to 0.4 units/minute. Dose may be titrated as needed to a maximum dose of 0.8 units/minute with maximum duration of 24 hours to reduce incidence of adverse effects. Administer IV nitroglycerin concurrently to prevent ischemic complications and monitor closely for signs/symptoms of myocardial, peripheral, and bowel ischemia.

Protocol at our institution:

Vasopressin

• Initiate vasopressin at 0.2 units/min.

• Increase by 0.2 units/min if bleeding is not controlled after one hour (max dose: 0.8 units/min).

• If bleeding controlled for 2 hours, can decrease by 0.2 units/min and reassess.

• Limit use to 24 hours.

Nitroglycerin

• Use nitroglycerin infusion to prevent adverse effects from vasopressin.

• Initiate nitroglycerin at 40 mcg/min, titrate by 40 mcg/min to a max dose of 400 mcg/min.

• Goal systolic blood press pressure of 90-100 mmHg.  Do not start nitroglycerin if SBP <90 mmHg.

***Please note the vasopressin dose for this indication is significantly higher than the typical dose of 0.03 units/min we use for shock.***

Show References

Please see attachment for the table of serum insulin levels

Show References

Attachments

2012312227_Untitled.pdf (39 Kb)

High dose insulin (HDI) therapy is commonly used in patients with severe beta-adrenergic antagonist and calcium channel antagonist overdose. Hypoglycemia and hypokalemia are commonly known complication of HDI therapy. However, kinetics of insulin in patients who received HDI therapy is unknown.

A 51 year-old man with amlodipine overdose was infused HDI (10 unit/kg/hr) for 37 hours; Serial serum insulin levels were drawn after discontinuation of HDI.

Serum insulin levels are shown in below table

The serum insulin level remained significantly elevated during the first 24 hours (normal range: 2.6-24.9 microU/mL) and gradually decreased over 6 days.

Conclusion

• The supraphysiologic insulin levels persist after discontinuation of HDI where patient may continue to experience hypoglycemia
• These elevated insulin level may allow for more rapid titration or simply discontinue HDI when hemodynamic stability is achieved.

Show References

Attachments

2012312232_Untitled.pdf (39 Kb)

Chief complaint:  “My hip snaps when I exercise”

Both athletes and non-athletes may report a “snapping” sound with certain movements

This may affect up to 10% of the population

May be associated with activities than involve repetitive hip flexion

Symptoms may be due to an internal or an external cause

External causes are usually due to a tendon passing over a bony prominence

This can be felt as either an audible sensation and/or even a palpable snap

This may or may not involve pain or discomfort

This is most commonly due to a benign cause

During movements in flexion, extension or combined with internal rotation the iliotibial band may move over the greater trochanter.

Alternatively, the hamstring tendon may pass over the ischial tuberosity

There are several other causes with similar mechanisms

Symptoms are usually minimal and not serious

This can be reproduced on bedside clinical exam

               Ask the patient to identify the area of snapping with one finger which will help with anatomic localization

First line therapy is physical therapy which focuses on:

Improving muscle length if muscle is too tight   OR

Improving neuromuscular activation if problem is due to excessive muscle activation

Young infants (0-90 days) have immature immune systems and are at higher risk for serious bacterial infections, particularly urinary tract infections, bacterial meningitis, and bacteremia. Infants less than 90 days old have an incidence of bacterial infections between 8 to 12.5%, while infants less than or equal to 28 days old have almost a 20% incidence.

Risk-stratification of this group has been a huge focus of research over the past couple of decades to help identify which patients require a full sepsis work-up, particularly in well-appearing infants if a source of fever is identified early. Recent studies have explored the utility of biomarkers in risk stratification in this population. A better ability to discriminate would hopefully decrease unnecessary lumbar punctures, antibiotic use, and hospital admission. Multiple studies have shown procalcitonin is able to outperform CRP for prediction of serious bacterial infections. Kuppermann et al developed a tool to identify low risk febrile infants < 60 days using procalcitonin and ANC. Their prediction rule gave a 97.7% sensitivity, 60% specificity, and 99.6% NPV for serious bacterial infection.  There have been several other studies that have looked harder to detect infections such as osteomyelitis or septic arthritis across all pediatric patients and the data has not been as promising.

Bottom line: Procalcitonin shows promise as part of a risk stratification tool in infants younger than 60 days.  Other studies have failed to show its relevance as a screening tool for osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, renal abscess or community acquired pneumonia.

Show References

The Romberg test is part of the standard neurologic examination. The patient is asked to stand with feet together, hand on hips/sides and the eyes are closed. Vestibular and proprioceptive input is being tested. 

This test is not very sensitive overall, but especially in concussed athletes.

Many concussed athletes are able to stand relatively stable despite their neurologic injury.

In order to better identify postural instability in concussion, we perform 3 separate balance tests (modified balance error scoring system, mBESS).

A) Romberg

B) Single leg stance

21. Standing on the non dominant foot, the hip is flexed to approximately 30° and the is knee flexed to approximately 45°.
21. NonDominant Leg: The nondominant leg is defined as the opposite leg of the preferred kicking leg

C) Tandem Stance

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Boaz_Saffer/publication/309591285/figure/fig2/AS:669641529626644@1536666390860/Balance-Error-Scoring-System-BESS-performed-on-firm-surface-A-C_W640.jpg

Have patient stand quietly with hands on hips

Have patient close eyes and start 20 second trial

If error occurs tell patient to return to start as quickly as possible

Examples of errors: opening eyes, lifting hands, falling out of position

Antimuscarinic agents (e.g. diphenhydramine) are one of the commonly ingested substances in the US. Lorazepam is frequently used to treat delirium and agitation associated with antimuscarinic toxicity. Although physostigmine is also effective, its use is infrequent due to concerns of safety and provider’s limited experience with physostigmine.

A small blinded randomized clinical trial was conducted to compare physostigmine vs lorazepam for the treatment of antimuscarinic toxicity -delirium/agitation. 

Inclusion criteria

• Age: 10-17 years old
• At least one central and 2 peripheral antimuscarinic symptoms
• Delirium and moderate agitation

Intervention

1. Lorazepam 0.05 mg/kg IV bolus (max 2 mg). this dose could be repeated at 10 min if needed. then a 4 hr normal saline infusion 
2. Physostigmine 0.02 mg/kg IV bolus (max 2 mg; over 3-5 min). this dose could be repeated at 10 min if needed. then 0.02 mg/kg/hr (max 2 mg/h) physostigmine infusion for 4 hours.

Plus administration of lorazepam (0.05 mg/kg) IV bolus (max 2 mg) every 2 hours as needed for continued agitation or delirium (at the discretion of treatment team)

Delirium and agitation were assessed by Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit score (CAM-ICU) and Richmond Agitation Sedation Score

Result

Study duration: March 20, 2017 to June 30, 2020

• 175 patients presented with xenobiotic ingestion. But 19 patients were enrolled
• Physostigmine arm: 9 (47%)
• Lorazepam arm: 10 (53%)

Antimuscarinic agent ingested

• Diphenhydramine: 16 (84%)
• Dicyclomine: 1 (5%)
• Doxylamine: 1 (5%)
• Hyoscyamine: 1 (5%)

Proportion of subject with delirium by CAM-ICU

Prior to first bolus (p >0.99)

• Lorazepam arm: 9/10 (90%)
• Physostigmine arm: 9/9 (100%)

After 1^st bolus (p=0.01)

• Lorazepam: 10/10 (100%)
• Physostigmine: 4/9 (44.4%)

End of 4 hr infusion (p <0.001)

• Lorazepam: 10 (100%
• Physostigmine: 2 (22.2%)

No adverse events noted in both group

Conclusion

• Although this is a small study, it showed that physostigmine is better than lorazepam in treating antimuscarinic delirium and agitation.
• This study provides additional support to the finding from a prior retrospective study (Bruns MJ et al. Ann Emerg Med. 2000;35(4):374-381), which also showed the benefits of physostigmine over benzodiazepines in the management of antimuscarinic overdose associated delirium.

Show References

• Prior studies have shown that ethnic minorities have lower levels of stroke knowledge and lower penetrance of public health stroke education.
• A recent study looked at whether patients’ language preference affects acute ischemic stroke care metrics.
  • 3190 stroke patients at an urban Comprehensive Stroke Center, where 300 (9.4%) had a non-English preferred language
  • They found no difference in:
    • Time from symptom discovery to ED arrival (128 min vs. 161 min for patients with English preferred language, p=0.68)
    • Arrival by EMS (65% vs. 61.3%, p=0.21)
    • Door-to-imaging time (55 min vs. 60 min, p=0.33)
    • Door-to-needle time for thrombolysis (51 min vs. 53 min, p=0.69)

Bottom Line: Patients' language preference does not appear to affect the efficiency of acute ischemic stroke care, especially at experienced high volume stroke centers. 

Show References