UMEM Educational Pearls

Cardiocerebral resuscitation is a new approach to CPR which has demonstrated improvements in survival and neurological recovery. The main focus is early defibrillation and good compressions with an early dose of EPI, but with a strong de-emphasis on early intubation or bagging. Most patients with sudden cardiac arrest don't need early oxygenation anyway, and the previous emphasis on ventilations only serves to take time and effort away from the important chest compressions. Intubation is deferred for 6-8 minutes after the cardiac arrest in favor of simple passive oxygenation with a non-rebreather.

The bottom line is that when facing a patient in cardiac arrest, the traditional mantra in emergency medicine of "A-B-C" needs to now be changed to emphasize the "C" coming first, second, and third.

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Knee Dislocations:

Are relatively rare injuries, but can result in loss of the limb if missed.  Patients will sometimes say they dislocated their knee when they actually mean their patella, so a good history where they describe what their knee looked like, and what they were doing at the time will help differentiated the two.

Some signs that you are dealing with a spontanously reduced knee dislocation are:

• Varus or valgus instability in full extension of the knee is suggestive of a grossly unstable knee
• Pain out of proportion to injury
• Absent or decreased pulse

The loss of limb is due to unrecognized injury to the popiteal artery which as be estimated to occur 7-45% of the time. 

• Normal pulses and a normal capillary refill does NOT rule out as significant vascular injury. 
• Arteriograms are no longer mandatory in all cases, but it is generally recommended that you perform an ankle-brachial index and get a vascular duplex scan of the popiteal artery to exclude dissections, tears, aneurysms and psuedo-anuerysms that can all occur as a result of the dislocation.

If you would like to see some videos of knee injuries in the making follow this link www.csmfoundation.org/Educational_Lower_Extremity.html

• Recently, a study was published which compared adverse drug events in patients who had received either fomepizole or ethanol for ethylene glycol or methanol poisoning.
• Importantly, this is the first trial which has compared these events head to head.
• Retrospectively, 172 charts over a 9 year period were reviewed. Toxicologists identified at least 1 ADR in 74 of 130 ethanol treated cases (57%) versus 5 of 42 fomepizole treated cases (12%).
• Severe ADRs occurred in 20% of ethanol treated patients vs 5% fomepizole treated patients.
• This adds further data to support the use of choosing fomepizole over alcohol for treatment of toxic alcohol poisonings

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• Akathisia is an adverse effect sometimes associated with the administration of medications such as neuroleptic anti-psychotics (i.e. chlorpromazine (Thorazine); haloperidol (Haldol); ziprazidone (Geodon)) and dopamine-blocking anti-emetics (i.e. metoclopramide (Reglan); prochlorperazine (Compazine)).

• This unpleasant symptom complex consists of restlessness and agitation, the severity of which correlates with the dose of the causative agent.

• Treatment classically consists of stopping or decreasing the dose of the causative agent and administering diphenhydramine (Benadryl).

• Benzodiazepines, beta blockers, and the antihistamine cyproheptadine have also been used with success.

• The following instrument, a modified version of the Prince Henry Hospital Scale of Akathisia, can be used to clinically assess for akathisia in a standardized fashion:

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Subjective Findings Do you feel restless or the urge to move especially in th legs? 0=No (none)     1=Some times (mild)    2=Most times (mod)    3=All times (severe) Objective Findings Observe patient for 2 full minutes on stopwatch: For how much time were they off their stretcher? 0=None   1=1 to 30 sec.     2=31 to 60 secs.     3=61 to 108 secs.    4=Whole time For how much time do they have purposeless or semi-purposeless leg or foot movement? 0=None   1=1 to 30 sec.     2=31 to 60 secs.     3=61 to 108 secs.    4=Whole time Diagnosis requires an elevation of 1 grade or more in the reported severity of subjective findings between the baseline and follow-up assessment (i.e. from none to mild, mild to mod.), with objective corroboration.

 

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New Perspectives on Clostridium difficile

• In the past 5 years, C.difficile infection rates have doubled and the overall disease severity appears to be worsening.
• Particularly concerning is the increase in community acquired infections in young patients without antibiotic or nosocomial exposure.
• These epidemiologic changes are likely due to a new strain of C.difficile characterized by increased virulence and quinolone resistance.
• Importantly, the efficacy of metronidazole has waned in recent years.  In fact, > 25% of patients with moderate to severe disease do not respond to metronidazole therapy.
• As a result, vancomycin has become first-line therapy for any critically ill patient with C.difficile.

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Giving a Lecture-Pearls and Pitfalls

Giving a lecture is filled with many potential pearls and pitfalls. Here are just a few important points that are frequently discussed:

• Stick to NO MORE than 3-4 take home points (people cannot remember more than that)
• Really spend a lot of time on the opening and closing (know them cold). This is what people will remember.
• Try to divide your talk into 5-10 minute chunks of material and DO NOT try to cover too much material....big mistake
• Perhaps one of the most important aspects of giving a really good talk is practice. You should know your material well enough that you could give it if the power went out and the computer crashes. Practice is essential...and it should "out loud." This is often neglected and it shows when unprepared speakers get up in front of an audience.
• Practice speaking without the use of verbal fillers ("ums"). This will improve as you practice more and more. Getting rid of these fillers may make the difference between a really good talk and an average talk. PRACTICE, PRACTICE, PRACTICE speaking without using them!

 

For an entertaining discussion of the pearls and pitfalls if giving a presentation check out the May episode of EMRAP: Educators' Edition on iTunes (also on the website www.emrap-ee.com). There is a great discussion by Greg Henry, Mel Herbert, and Amal Mattu. Check it out. It's free!

 

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The distinction between pericarditis and acute MI on ECG can often be difficult. Here are a few things that can help rule in acute MI:
1. If the ST-segment elevation is convex upwards in any leads (e.g. appearing like a tombstone) or flat/horizontal across the top, it very strongly favors AMI. Pericarditis should always demonstrate STE that is concave upwards.
2. If ST-segment depression is present in any lead other than aVR or V1, it strongly favors AMI.
3. If PR-depression is present in multiple leads (not just a 2-3 leads, but in MANY) and PR-elevation > 1-2 mm is present in aVR, it favors pericarditis...but only if rules #1 and #2 above are not present.

Be careful about the HPI and description of chest pain...AMI pain is often described as sharp, and in up to 15% it may be described as sharp, pleuritic, or positional in nature, making you think about pericarditis.

 

 

Distal Radius Fractures

• The radius is the most commonly fracutred bone of the arm.
   
• The Colles fracture is a fracture of the distal radius that is angulated dorsally [The distal fragment is angulated towards the back of the hand.]
   
• The Smith fracture is similar but the distal fracture is angulated volarly [towards the palm of the hand]
   
• Other less commonly named fractures are the:
  • Barton's - an intraarticular fracture fo the distal radius with dislocation of the radiocarpal joint.  Typically occrus as a fall on the extended and pronated wrist.
     
  • Chauffeur's fracutre - a fracture of the radial styloid process.  Typically caused by compression of the scaphoid against the styloid.  Also known as a hutchinson fracture.

Pancytopenia manifests as a decrease in the erythroid, myeloid, and megakaryocytic cell lines that appears as a decrease in red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelents on complete blood count analysis. 

• Indicates bone marrow failure
• May be due to invasion of marrow by nonneoplastic (such as drugs, chemicals, irradiation, or infections) or neoplastic conditions
• Clinically manifests as pallor, easy fatigability, and weakness due to anemia; purpura, epistaxis, and bruising due to thrombocytopenia; and increased susceptibility to infection due to leukoopenia.

Pancytopenia is an absolute indication for bone marrow aspiration and biopsy to delineate and treat the cause.

 

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• It is incumbent that emergency physicians be aware of and utilize as appropriate all available tools in the critical, yet challenging evaluation and management of acute ischemic stroke (AIS) patients.
   
• While non-contrast head CT remains the primary modality used in the initial evaluation of these patients, CT angiography (CTA) and MRI with diffusion are rapidly becoming more acutely available because they provide more exact and accurate information, which directly affects the crucial decisions that have to be made in order to provide effective and expedient care.
   
• CTA provides imaging of the entire intra and extra cranial circulation beginning at the aortic arch to the Circle of Willis, and can be performed in less than 20 seconds.  Within minutes, these imags can be re-constructed to reveal vascular stenosis and occlusions.
   
• MRI is typically not as rapidly accessible as CT, but there are scenarios wherein the additional time spent to acquire this modaility yields significant clinical merit.  While a full brain MRI may take up to an hour, acquisition of the MR diffusion portion of the scan (which highlights focal areas of acute infarct) requires less than 10 minutes.    

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Acute Cor Pulmonale and Ventilation In the critically ill,

Acute cor pulmonale (ACP) is usually observed in the setting of massive pulmonary embolism or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). As we manage more and more critically ill patients in the ED, it is likely that you will manage patients who develop ARDS.

We have discussed in previous pearls that, especially in ARDS, using a low tidal volume and monitoring plateau pressure are key components to mechanical ventilation.

For patients with ARDS who develop ACP, consider lower plateau pressure thresholds (< 26 cm H20) and minimizing PEEP to < 8 cm H2O.

If ACP persists despite lower plateau pressures and low PEEP, consider prone position ventilation as a last resort.

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Questioning Learners in the ED-Wait Times

When teaching medical students and residents, consider that the literature shows that we tend to wait only a few seconds (some studies say 3 seconds-which seems like a long time when you are waiting for a response) for a response. Bottom line, it has been demonstrated that many learners have the answer and will respond if simply given the time. Hard to do sometimes in a busy ED. Learners who aren't given time to respond will quickly learn that if they simply wait long enough the answers will be given to them.

So, when asking a question (NOT pimping) to a medical student or resident, simply wait a little longer. They may very well surprise you with the answer.

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• Fractures of the phalanx are common, and fractures of the proximal phalanx can lead to significant disability if not treated appropriately.

• Be sure to check for malrotation, which is a common problem.  Check for this by examing for the normal cascade in finger flexion with the tips of the fingers pointing toward the proximal portion of the scaphoid

• Acceptable Reduction:
  • No rotational deformity can be accepted
  • No more than 10 deg of angulation should be accepted in any plane
  • Malreduction will cause loss of equilibrium between flexor and extensor tendons.

• Place the splint on the dorsum side of the finger so that the patient can still have sensation of the tip of their finger tip.

• Patients requiring prompt referral to a hand surgeon are those with:
  • Intraarticular fractures
  • Malrotation
  • Unacceptable reductions
  • Unstable fractures

 

• Increasing use of OTC meds is a worldwide occurence with $3.5 billion each year spent in the US.
• About 4 million children younger than 12 yrs are treated with these meds each week in the US.
• In 2007 the FDA recommended that the use of OTC cold meds (antihistamines-brompheniramine, chlorpheniramine, diphenhydramine, doxylamine; antitussive-dextromethorphan; expectorant-guaifenesin; and decongestants-pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine) be prohibited in children < 6 yrs.
• A recent review of 103 childhood deaths due to OTC meds found that most deaths were from product misuse rather than adverse effects resulting from recommended doses particularly when the product was used with the intent to sedate a child. 
• Children less than 2 years old were most susceptible to death using these products which is why manufacturers voluntarily withdrew the use of OTC meds in this age group.

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Ondansetron (Zofran) has been off patent and its price has dropped to the point that it has supplanted promethazine (Phenergan) and even metoclopramide (Reglan) as the antiemetic of choice. With its low side-effect profile and known efficacy it is now being utilized in hyperemesis gravidarum and in pediatric gastroenteritis. - A cochrane review showed ondansetron to be both safe and effective in the pediatric population. Consider it prior to attempting oral rehydration therapy to increase effectiveness. - Dose: 0.1 mg/kg - you can give the oral dissolvable tablet (ODT) - ages 4-11 you can give 4mg ODT - Above age 11 the dosing is the same as an adult.

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• Patients with severe or rapidly progressive weakness due to a Myasthenia Graves (MG) exacerbation should be admitted to an intensive care unit.
   
• Acute MG patients' forced vital capacity (FVC) should be monitored every 2 to 4 hours to accurately assess the function of their respiratory muscles.
   
• FVC can easily be measured at the bedside, particularly by a respiratory technician.
   
• Once the patients' FVC is consistently approaching or reaches 15 mL/kg, the patient should be electively intubated in order to ensure protection of their airway.  In an average sized adult, an FVC of 1000 mL is the point at which respiratory failure is eminent.
   
• Arterial blood gas abnormalities are not reliable indicators of respiratory muscle decompensation, and typically occur as a late sign of respiratory failure.
   
• Once the patient is intubated, anticholinesterase medications are typically withdrawn.

Assessing Volume Status in the Critically Ill

• In previous pearls we have discussed the many limitations of central venous pressure as an accurate marker of volume status.
• Importantly, the focus of volume assessment should be on determining which patients are likely to augment their cardiac output in response to additional IVFs, i.e. 'preload responsive'.
• Ultrasound can be used in the ED to assist in identifying which patients are preload responsive.
• In general, a 15% variation in the inferior vena cava diameter with respiration predicts response to additional fluids.

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The One Minute Preceptor Model of Teaching in the ED

This is a teaching strategy that most of us are very familiar with. Why? Because many, if not most, of us do it every day. We listen to a case, get a committment from the learner, probe for supporting evidence, and then give a teaching pearl and offer learning resources.

Perhaps one of the biggest pitfalls in teaching is NOT WAITING for the learner to answer to question. How often have you asked a question to a medical student and gave the answer? How often has a student presented a case and then they clammed up and didn't commit to a diagnosis or treatment plan?

A simple strategy for teaching success:

• Make learners "jump out there" and give you a diagnosis and treatment plan, i.e. get a commitment. Do your best to keep your mouth closed for a few seconds
• Give learners time to answer. You will be surprised. A few more seconds of waiting makes a big difference.

Dark chocolate is being touted more and more as being beneficial to vascular health. It contains polyphenols which has been found to exert anti-oxidant effects and improve endothelial and platelet function. The benefit appears to occur anywhere from 2-8 hours after ingestion of dark chocolate. Unfortunately, the same has not been found true for white chocolate or milk chocolate.

The only caveat is that most of the studies seem to originate in Switzerland and are funded by the Mars Company and Nestle...but who care?? Go ahead and have some dark chocolate every day!

[Dark Chocolate Improves Endothelial and Platelet Function (Hermann F, Heart 2006); Cocoa and Cardiovascular Health (Corti R, Circulation 2009)]
 

The French Surgeon Rene Le Fort first described these facial fracture patterns.   Reportedly he made the observations after dropping numerous skulls from the wall of a castle.  This might be why we don't see pure Le Fort fractures in our patients most of the time as they are not likely to be falling off castle falls head first.

The classic fracture patterns are:

1. Le Fort I fractures extends from the nasal septum to the lateral pyriform rims, travels horizontally above the teeth apices, crosses below the zygomaticomaxillary junction, and traverses the pterygomaxillary junction to interrupt the pterygoid plates.
2. Le Fort II fracture has a pyramidal shape and extends from the nasal bridge at or below the nasofrontal suture through the frontal processes of the maxilla, inferolaterally through the lacrimal bones and inferior orbital floor and rim through or near the inferior orbital foramen, and inferiorly through the anterior wall of the maxillary sinus; it then travels under the zygoma, across the pterygomaxillary fissure, and through the pterygoid plates.
3. Le Fort III fractures (transverse) are otherwise known as craniofacial dissociation and involve the zygomatic arch.  These fractures start at the nasofrontal and frontomaxillary sutures and extend posteriorly along the medial wall of the orbit through the nasolacrimal groove and ethmoid bones. The fracture continues along the floor of the orbit along the inferior orbital fissure and continues superolaterally through the lateral orbital wall, through the zygomaticofrontal junction and the zygomatic arch.

 

http://radiographics.rsnajnls.org/cgi/content-nw/full/26/3/783/F15