UMEM Educational Pearls

Acute on Chronic Liver Failure

• Patients with cirrhosis can comprise up to 5% of an ICU population.
• Many of these patients will present to the ED, and be admitted to the ICU, for acute on chronic liver failure.
• A few management pearls for these patients include:
  • Consider albumin in patients with hepatorenal syndrome, large-volume paracentesis (> 5 L), and SBP
  • Norepinephrine is the initial vasopressor of choice; target a MAP ≥ 60 mm Hg
  • The INR does not accurately reflect bleeding in these patients.  Use platelet count and fibrinogen.
  • There is no need to correct coagulation abnormalities prior to routine procedures (e.g., central venous catheterization)

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25% of U.S. health care spending goes to the 6% of people who die every year. ICUs account for 20% of all health care costs. A new study has shown that patients with POLST (Physician Orders for Life-Sustaining Treatments) forms are less likely to receive unwanted life sustaining treatments when compared to patients with traditional Do-Not-Resuscitate orders (http://www.ohsu.edu/polst/). Using the POLST did not impact the degree of comfort care received for symptom management and helped individuals make more informed choices about the type and level of end-of-life care they wish to receive.

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• The current Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines recommend treating septic patients with bundled care to improve outcomes. 
• The first bundle should be completed within 3 hours of suspicion of sepsis and includes:
  • Obtain blood cultures before antibiotics
  • Obtain lactate level
  • Administer broad-spectrum antibiotics
  • Administer 30mL/kg crystalloid fluid for hypotension  (MAP <65, lactate >4)

• A recent study in Critical Care Medicine examined the time frame when the delay of specific 3-hour bundle guideline recommendations applied to severe sepsis or septic shock becomes harmful and impacts mortality.
• Retrospective cohort study of all adult patients hospitalized with severe sepsis or septic shock from January 2011 to July 31, 2015. Of the 5,072 patients enrolled, 95.8% received the 3-hour bundle.
• Results:
  • Overall in-hospital mortality = 27.8%
  • If patient did not receive any of the 3-hr bundle items, in-house mortality = 41.1%
  • Statistically significant delays were linked to increased mortality for all bundle items
  • Delays beyond 3 hours were associated with minimal additional harm already caused by the 3-hour delay

Bottom Line: Implement sepsis protocols as soon as sepsis is suspected prior to the end of the 3 hour treatment window.

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• Stevens-Johnsons like rash and mucositis
• Most common in children and adolescents, with a mean age of 12 years old
• More common in males than females, 2:1
• Prodromal symptoms of cough, fever, and malaise precede
• Mucositis far out of proportion to body rash, 90% vs 10%
• Mucositis is primarily oral > ocular > genital in distribution, and can be severe
• Body rash may involve palms and soles
• Complications: dehydration, GIB, epiglottitis, blindness, pericardial effusion
• Testing: PCR nasal wash/BAL; agglutination assays IgM/IgG
• Treatment: azithromycin and supportive care; occasionally steroids; rarely IVIG
• Unlike Stevens-Johnsons, prognosis is good.

Patients may present atypically with ischemic strokes, reporting symptoms such as face or hemibody pain, lightheadedness, mental status change, headache and non-neurological symptoms.

Up to 25% of patients will have these symptoms.

Women are more likely than men to present with these atypical (or “nontraditional”) symptoms, especially altered mental status.

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Background:

Animal studies in post-ROSC management after cardiac arrest have repeatedly demonstrated poorer neurological outcomes with higher amounts of oxygen administration.¹ Studies in humans have also demonstrated dose-dependent associations between hyperoxia and poorer neurologic outcomes, as well as in-hospital mortality.^2,3

Recent Data

A retrospective analysis of prospectively-collected data in 187 OHCA patients undergoing postarrest care with targeted temperature management found worse neurologic outcomes in patients experiencing hyperoxia in the first 6 hours following ROSC.⁴

This association was dose-dependent, with worsening outcomes as with higher PaO2 levels >200.

• Adjusted OR 1.659 [95% CI, 1.194–2.305] at 200 mmHg
• Adjusted OR 3.969 [95% CI, 1.450–10.862] for 300 mmHg
• Trend towards worsening at 150 mmHg that did not reach statistical significance

Bottom Line:

• Our initial management of these patients in the ED is crucial
• In post-cardiac arrest patients, titrate immediate FiO2 to SpO2 ≥ 94% and PaO2 75 to 150/200 mmHg to avoid hyperoxia and worsening neurologic and survival outcomes. 

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Boutonniere Deformity
aka buttonhole deformity

Misdiagnosed as a “jammed” or “sprained” finger

• Deformity occurs at the PIP joint
• Trauma to the PIP joint can cause the joint capsule to tear, the head of the phalanx can buttonhole thru the defect and the lateral bands of the extensor tendons fall laterally & contract
• The lateral bands then function as PIP flexors and not extensors
• DIP hyperextension due to excessive pull of the displaced lateral bands
• As a result, the pateint WILL be able to flex the DIP joint, but WILL NOT be able to extend   the PIP joint                                                                    
• OCCURS 1 - 3 weeks post injury
• May not present with classic textbook deformity
• The Elson test is the best way to detect the injury pattern before the deformity is evident
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G9HY0qXWUvE

Recently, an ex-Russian spy and his daughter were poisoned in Salisbury, England using a Soviet nerve agent called Novichok. He joins a list of defectors and ex-spies who's poisoning have been connected to Russia.

Nerve agents are organophosphate compounds, similar to the commercially available pesticides, but significantly more potent. Nerve agents such as VX take seconds to minutes to irreversibly inhibit acetylcholinesterase by “aging” and result in clinical toxicity. 

Signs and symptoms

• Muscarinic: DUMBELS or SLUDGE and Killer B's
• Nicotinic: muscle weakness & paralysis

Treatment

• Decontamination
• Atropine – 2 mg IV and double the dose every 3 – 5 minutes until clearing of bronchorrhea, bronchospasm and bradycardia
• Pralidoxime – reverses inhibition of acetylcholinesterases that are not aged

Worsening hypoxemia is not uncommon upon initiation of VV ECMO for severe ARDS as tidal volumes drop to double digits  (often <20cc) after transition to “lung rest” ventilator settings. The following are strategies to improve peripheral oxygenation:

1. Increase the blood’s oxygen content

-       Ensure FIO2 of ECMO sweep gas is 1

-       Increase ECMO blood flow

o   Limited by cannula size and configuration – may require placement of additional venous drainage cannula

o   Also limited by greater risk of recirculation and hemolysis

-       Increase blood oxygen-carrying capacity

o   Transfuse PRBCs – some advocate for goal hemoglobin 12-14, though institutional practices vary significantly

2. Minimize recirculation

-       Maximize distance between drainage and return cannulae

3. Reduce oxygen consumption

-       Optimize sedation and neuromuscular blockade. (This is not the appropriate scenario for awake ECMO.)

-       Consider therapeutic hypothermia

4. Decrease cardiac output and intrapulmonary shunt

-       Consider beta blocker (esmolol) infusion

-       Prone positioning (only if staff are experienced with proning on ECMO as this poses significant risk of cannula displacement)

5. Consider switching to hybrid configuration (VVA – continued venous drainage cannula and venous return cannula with addition of arterial return cannula)  

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Peri-Intubation Cardiac Arrest

• Endotracheal intubation is a high-risk procedure, especially in the critically ill patient.
• The incidence of peri-intubation cardiac arrest ranges from 2% to 5%, and is associated with significant increases in morbidity and mortality.
• Authors of a recent retrospective analysis across 64 French ICUs sought to determine risk factors for cardiac arrest during ICU intubation.
• Among 1,847 intubations, the main predictors of cardiac arrest during intubation were:
  • Pre-intubation arterial hypotension (SBP < 90 mm Hg) (OR 3.4)
  • Pre-intubation hypoxemia (OR 3.99)
  • Absence of preoxygenation (OR 3.58)
  • Obesity (OR 2)
  • Age > 75 years of age (OR 2.25)
• Take Home Point
  • Pay close attention to these risk factors and "resuscitate before you intubate".

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Fluid overload (defined in this study as (fluid input-output)/weight)) is associated with longer hospital stays, longer treatment duration and oxygen use.

Bottom line: Treat dehydration appropriately but try not to over resuscitate the asthmatic.  Further studies are needed before definitive recommendations are made.

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• A recent systematic review evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of 19 prehospital stroke scales.
• Arm motor strength is the most frequently evaluated item by the scales (15/19), followed by gaze (13/19) and language (13/19).
• Only 4 scales (RACE, LAMS, VAN, sNIHSS-EMS) were performed by paramedics in their original studies.
• The NIHSS, LAMS, and VAN appear to have better results in predicting large vessel occlusion.
• The presence of hemineglect, a sign of cortical involvement, improved the accuracy of the scale.

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Pectoralis Major Rupture

Most commonly seen in male weightlifters

Usually occurs as a tendon avulsion

Incidence is increasing

Hx: Sudden, sharp, tearing sensation with pain and weakness with arm movement

PE: Palpable defect and deformity of anterior axillary fold. Bruising and swelling.

               Deformity may not be obvious with arm by side and relaxed

Testing: Weakness with ADDuction and internal rotation

https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/wQcuu_sG76t_DLWocO_c2344IT69g_vWXY0FKtqhR4L37qrrsIuW607LZkVFT8QTLAdaTeU=s170

Treatment:  Operative treatment has better outcomes but depends on patient subgroups

Nonoperative treatment generally indicated for partial ruptures and tears in the body of the pec and muscle tendon junction

               Sling, ice and pain control.

Operative treatment generally for high demand patients (athletes) and bony avulsion injuries

Signs and symptoms of acute cyanide poisoning are not well characterized due to its rare occurrence.  Commonly mentioned characteristics of bitter almond odor and cherry red skin have poor clinical utility.

Recently published review of 65 articles (102 patients) showed that most patients experienced following signs and symptoms:

1. Unresponsive: 78%
2. Respiratory failure: 73%
3. Hypotension: 54%
4. Cardiac arrest: 20%
5. Seizure: 20%
6. Cyanosis: 15%
7. Odor: 15%
8. Cherry red skin: 11%

There is no clear toxidrome for cyanide poisoning.

In a poisoned patient, health care providers should consider cyanide in their differential diagnosis in the presence of severe metabolic and lactic acidosis (lactic acid > 8 in isolated cyanide poisoning or > 10 in smoke/fire victim).

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Fosfomycin is an antibiotic infrequently used for the treatment of urinary tract infections (UTIs). It has a broad spectrum of activity that covers both gram-positive (MRSA, VRE) and gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas, ESBL, and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae), which is useful in the treatment of multidrug-resistant bacteria. 

Fosfomycin is FDA approved for the treatment of uncomplicated UTIs in women due to susceptible strains of Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis (3g oral as a single dose). Data has also demonstrated that it can be used for complicated UTIs; however, dosing is different in this population (3 g oral every 2-3 days for 3 doses).  Fosfomycin is not recommended for pyelonephritis.

The broad spectrum of activity, in addition to only needing a single dose in most cases, makes fosfomycin an attractive option; however, it should be reserved for use in certain circumstances.  Fosfomycin should not be considered as a first-line option.  It is also more expensive than other medications (~$100/dose) and in countries with high rates of utilization bacteria are developing resistance to fosfomycin.  In addition, most outpatient pharmacies do not keep this medication in stock.

Take-Home Point:

Fosfomycin should be reserved for multidrug-resistant UTIs in which other first-line options have been exhausted.

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A leading cause of cardiac arrest in patients 40 years and younger is due to drug poisoning.  Adverse cardiovascular events (ACVE) such as myocardial injury (by biomarker or ECG), shock (hypotension or hypoperfusion requiring vasopressors), ventricular dysrhythmias (ventricular tachycardia/fibrillation, torsade de pointes), and cardiac arrest (loss of pulse requiring CPR) are responsible for the largest proportion of morbidity and mortality overdose emergencies. Clinical predictors of adverse cardiovascular events in drug overdose in recent studies include:

• QTc prolongation on presentation ECG ( > 500 msec )
• Prior history of either coronary artery disease or congestive heart failure
• Metabolic acidosis (elevated serum lactate)

Bottom line:

Obtain ECG and perform continuous telemetry monitoring in overdose patients with above risk factors. Patients with two or more risk factors have extremely high risk of in-hospital adverse cardiovascular events and intensive care setting should be considered.

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Benign headaches are common in bodybuilders. However, several less benign headaches are worth noting:

• Low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure headache: caused by a small dural tear mostly at the thoracic level. Similar to postdural headache. Treated by recumbency, and blood patches if recalcitrant.
• Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH)
• Spontaneous intracranial hemorrhage
• Ischemic stroke
• Dural sinus thrombosis

All except the first two are exclusively reported in patients on anabolic steroids, growth hormone, and/or “energy” supplements. Make sure to ask your patient about these risk factors.

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Which septic patients should receive empiric antifungal therapy?

Patients with fungemia only make up about 5% of patients presenting with septic shock, but invasive fungal infections are associated with increased hospital mortality (40-50%), prolonged ICU and hospital length of stay, and increased costs of care.¹

The EMPIRICUS trial showed no mortality benefit to empiric antifungals for all, even patients with candidal colonization and recent exposure to antibiotics.²

Bottom Line

Therapy should always be tailored to the specific patient, but providers should strongly consider admininistering empiric echinocandin (micafungin, caspofungin) over fluconazole in patients with severe sepsis/septic shock and:

• Immunosuppression (chronic steroids, neutropenia, organ transplant)
• Prolonged central venous catheters
• TPN
• Yeast colonization
• Severe pancreatitis
• Recent abdominal surgeries or procedures (perforation repairs, resections, etc.) or concern for impaired gut integrity

*Especially consider addition of antifungal in patients who do not show improvements after initial management with IVF and broad spectrum antibiotics in the ED.*

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The search for an objective reliable test for mild traumatic brain injury found an early promising result last week.

               May be arriving in your hospital in the near future.

               A handheld sideline version is sure to follow

The FDA approved the first blood test for concussion/mild TBI

               Called the Banyan BTI (Brain Trauma Indicator)

This test measures 2 neural protein biomarkers released into the blood following mild TBI

The FDA approved this test within 6 months after reviewing data on just under 2,000 blood samples.

               They concluded the Banyan BTI can predict the absence of cranial CT lesions with an accuracy greater than 99% and may reduce imaging in up to a 1/3^rd

Be optimistic but consider the small sample size and remember that this test looks for biomarkers and may miss subtle cases where proteins didn’t leak. This test is NOT ready to be used for return to play decisions. It takes 3 to 4 hours to result and costs about $150. Other biomarkers are being investigated and may prove to be better

https://www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/ucm596531.htm