UMEM Educational Pearls

Acute Lung Injury (ALI) / Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)

• ALI and ARDS are defined as:
  • bilateral pulmonary infiltrates on CXR
  • pulmonary capillary wedge pressure < 18 mm Hg (no heart failure)
  • P_aO₂ / F_iO₂ < 300 = ALI
  • P_aO₂ / F_iO₂ < 200 = ARDS  
• The current management for patients with ALI or ARDS is low tidal volume ventilation and a conservative fluid management strategy
• Two recent trials (EXPRESS and LOVS) evaluated different applications of PEEP in patients with ALI/ARDS
• Both studies evaluated lower levels of PEEP (5-10) vs. higher levels of PEEP titrated to plateau pressure
• Bottom line: different PEEP strategies did not influence survival, although higher levels did result in improved oxygenation.

Management of Ruptured AV Fistula

This pearl pertains to a case I had 2 weeks ago. A 65 yo male presented with a massively swollen left forearm in the region of his AV fistula. On ultrasound he had a 6 X 6 cm aneurysm. He was seen by vascular and transplant surgery and taken to the OR for repair.

So, the question came up, what would an emergency physician do if this bad boy actually ruptured? Well, obviously we would hold pressure. But what if that didn't work? Well, shouldn't the patient go to the OR? The answer is a resounding yes, but what if there is no surgeon around. There is not much literature on how to handle this devastating vascular catastrophe.

As a rule of thumb, if an AV Fistula ruptures (not leaks) and the patient is exsanguinating in front of you:

• Strongly consider a tourniquet (don't worry about the arm, they are about to die). Yes, that is right, a tourniquet. Sounds like common sense, but according to the vascular surgeons I have spoken with, too often this isn't done, and the patient ends up dying. If the patient is dying, tie the arm off.
• Consult a vascular surgeon ASAP

Show References

Brugada syndrome, believed to be responsible for up to 4-5% of all episodes of cardiac arrest, has now been associated with atrial fibrillation as well (atrial fibrillation is the most common atrial dysrhythmia associated with Brugada syndrome). Patients with atrial fibrillation that have a full or incomplete right bundle branch block with ST segment elevation in leads V1-V2 should be referred to an electrophysiologist for evaluation of Brugada syndrome. The best treatment for these patients is still placement of an ICD.
 

Posterior Interosseous Nerve Compression Syndrome

As eluded to last week Posterior Interosseous Nerve (PIN) Compression Syndrome, a deep branch of the radial nerve, is felt to be radial tunnel syndrome with paralysis.

• Symptoms depend on whether the PIN is compressed before or after it divides into medial and lateral branches.
  • Before: Results in complete paralysis of the digital extensors, and extensor Capri ulnaris. Wrist will become dorsoradial deviated.
  • After-Medial Branch: Paralysis of extensor carpi ulnaris, extensor digiti quinti, and extensor digitorum communis
  • After-Lateral Branch: Paralysis of abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis, extensor pollicis longus, and extensor indicis proprius
• Common causes:
  • Synovitis and Joint Ganglions
  • Nerve compression following fracture repair
  • Idiopathic Compression can occur at these sites
    • Fibrous bands anterior to the radial head
    • Tendinous origin of Extensor Carpri Radialis Brevis
    • Arcade of Froshe –Most common, it is the tendinous proximal border of supinator
    • Distal Edge of Supinator –Least Common
• Exam:
  • Increased pain with resisted supination of the forearm
  • Supination with Wrist Flexion symptoms will likely be reproduced.
  • Pain with resisted extension of the middle finger
  • Unable to extend thumbs or fingers at MCP joints, but can extend at PIP and DIP joints

Topical Lidocaine for Acute Otitis Media

• Up to 83% of children with have AOM at least once by their 3rd birthday.
• In 2006, the AAP supported a “wait-and-see” plan for antibiotic prescription
  • Who can you withhold abx on?
    • Older than 6months
    • No severe infections (T>39°C)
    • If yes to both, may hold Abx for 48 hours.
• This approach does not mean “No treatment.”  Pain management is imperative.
  • Oral Analgesics are recommended in all cases.
  • Topical aqueous 2% licocaine eardrops also provide Rapid Pain Relief
    • Randomized, double-blinded, placebo-control study of topical lidocaine vs. placebo (water) demonstrated decreased pain scores at 10, 20, and 30 minutes after administration.
    • These can also be used safely at home for a few days.
       

Show References

• Adolescents abuse inhalational agents due to lack of access to ETOH and illicit drugs
• Often halogenated hydrocarbon propellants like computer cleaner and paint stripper
• Sensitizes the myocardium to catecholamines
• Child is caught huffing and is frightened causing a catecholamines surge then v-fib arrest
• This was reported in a 1970 case series and "Sudden Sniffing Death" was coined (1)
• Actual treatment would be to administer B-Blocker in this instance (theoretical)

Bass. Sudden Sniffing Death. JAMA 1970.

• 85% of TIA's last less than an hour.
• 25% of strokes are preceded by a TIA.

Propofol Infusion Syndrome

• Many of us are now using propofol for sedation in our critically ill patients
• Although a great drug, it is important to be aware of "propofol infusion syndrome" (PIS)
• Risk factors for PIS include young age, severe CNS or pulmonary illness, and exogenous catecholamine administration
• Clinical features include: unexplained metabolic acidosis, rhabdomyolysis, hyperlipidemia, hepatomegaly, and cardiovascular instability
• Pearl: It is reported that the development of coved ST elevations in V1-V3 (similar to Brugada syndrome) may be the first sign of cardiac instability with PIS

Show References

Side Effects of Hydrochlorothiazide

 Consider the following when prescribing HCTZ from the emergency department:

The side effects of hydrochlorothiazide include hypokalemia,hypercalcemia, hypomagnesemia, metabolic alkalosis, hyponatremia, hyperuricemia (may worsen gout), hyperglycemia, hypercholesterolemia, hypertriglyceridemia.

Show References

The three factors that are most predictive of an arrhythmia as the cause of a syncopal episode are, in order:
1. abnormal ECG
2. history of CHF
3. age > 65

Overall, approximately 15-20% of cases of syncope are determined to be caused by an arrhythmia.

For those at the University of Maryland that got the chance to hear my lecture this week, you learned about Cubital tunnel syndrome [ulnar neuropathy], the second most common compressive neuropathy.  Carpal Tunnel syndrome remains the number one compressive neuropathy, and this pearl, for the sake of completeness, will address Radial tunnel syndrome.

Radial Tunnel Syndrome

• Believed to be due to overuse, frequently due to excessive elbow extension or forearm rotation.
• May actually just be an early stage of posterior interosseous nerve syndrome.
• Due to compression of the radial nerve as it passes a fibrous band that is attached to the radiocapitellar joint, and the tendinous origins of two muscles, extersor carpi radialis brevis and the supinator.
• Patients typically have l pain along the anteriolateral forearm.
• Pain is increased by extending the elbow and pronating the forearm.
• This syndrome is associated mostly with pain
• Weakness and numbness are not often seen.

Stay tuned for next week for Posterior Interosseous Nerve syndrome.

Pediatric Burns

• Burn Depth:
  • Avoid the traditional classification of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th degrees – they are imprecise.
  • Use modern classification:
    • Superficial, superficial partial thickness, deep partial thickness, full thickness, and Deep full thickness.
• Estimation of burn %:
  • Rules of 9 is NOT useful in pediatrics
  • Use the Lund-Browder Chart, which accounts for varying surface area percentiles by age.
  • If Lund-Browder Chart not available, use the area from the patient’s wrist to the tips of the fingers as being equivalent to 1% of his/her BSA.
  • Don’t include superficial burns in calculation of %TBSA burned.
  • Burn depth will often progress… anticipate this, as this will have implications on fluid management.
• Fluid Resuscitation
  • Parkland: Weight (kg) x %TBSA burned x 4ml = 24 hr total volume of Ringer’s Lactate
  • First ½ over the first 8 hours SINCE THE TIME OF THE BURN (not the arrival in the ED)
  • Second ½ over the next 16 hrs.
  • IF THE PT WEIGHS <30kg, this volume needs to be IN ADDITION to the child’s Maintenance fluids
  • Parkland gives you an estimate of the starting fluid requirements, but assessment of the Urine Output allows you to adjust it according to the pt’s needs:
    • Goal Urine Output = 1ml/kg/hr for pts <30kg; 0.5ml/kg/hr for pts >30kgs
    • Be careful not to fluid overload pt: decrease or increase IVF rate accordingly.
       

Show References

Show References

Intra-aortic balloon pump counterpulsation

• It is possible that at some point in your career you may need to place an intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) to temporarily stabilize a patient wth cardiogenic shock
• Optimal performance of the IABP is dependent upon proper positioning in the thoracic aorta
• Traditional teaching has been to insert the IABP via the femoral artery and advance to the level of the aortic knob (via CXR)
• A recent study suggests that using the aortic knob to position the IABP may result in occlusion of the left subclavian artery in a substantial portion of patients (16% in the study)
• Placing the IABP 2 cm above the carina may be a more reliable landmark that using the aortic knob

Show References

Suspected Acute Leukemia in the ED

 Key ED Interventions for patients with astronomically high WBC counts:

• Usually talking about WBC counts over 200,000 or so (can be lower in lymphocytic leukemia)
• Hydrate aggressively
• Avoid PRBC transfusions as blood products will increase the patient's cytocrit (combination of WBC, platelets, and RBC) and predispose to organ malperfusion. This may lead to WBC (or blast) sludging in the microcirculation and may result in CNS bleeds. 
• Obviously, call for help immediately! Get a hematologist on the line quickly
• Assume the patient already has Tumor Lysis Syndrome and administer Allopurinol in a dose of 300 mg orally.
• Obtain a uric acid level, and if high, give an intravenous infusion of Rasburicase-eliminates preformed uric acid released from leukemia cell lysis. Renal failure results from high uric acid levels. We have this medication at University.
• The treatment of choice is initiation of definitive chemotherapy....clearly not an option for us in the ED. You can also do leukapheresis (where you take out WBC)....also not an option unless you have a special catheter and a perfusionist/nurse. BUT, you can take off a unit or two of blood (phlebotomy). This will potentially lower the patient's cytocrit. 

Infections occur in up to 8-9% of ICD sites. Early infections usually occur within the first 2 months of placement and are associated with typical findings...redness, tenderness, systemic symptoms, etc. Late infections, however, are often associated with nothing more than JUST pain.

Lack of diagnosis of ICD site infections is associated with a mortality > 50%.

When infected, the entire ICD (including wires) must be replaced.

The most commor organisms associated with ICD infections are Staph and Strep. Treat them all with vancomycin.

Turf Toe:

Most commonly seen in atheletes who compete on artificial turf.  Presents as pain over the 1st Metatarsalphalangeal  (MTP) joint. 

• Due to a tear of the Metatarsal phalangeal Joint Capsule
• Results in subluxation or dislocation of the MTP joint
• Occurs due to:
  • Hyperextension (most common)
  • Hyperflexion
  • Valgus stress
• Treatment:
  • NSAIDS
  • Rest
  • Orthosis -- Prevents dorsiflexion during athletic activities

Pediatric Accidental Non-Fatal Injuries

• Every 1.5 minutes an infant 0-12 months is evaluated in an ED for nonfatal unintentional injuries
• “Falls” are the leading cause of injuries in all age groups (0-12mos)
  • account for ~51% of ED visits in this group
  • Only 2.6% required hospitalization
• “Drowning” was the least common cause of ED visit (0.2%), but
  • accounts for ~47% of the hospitalizations in this group
• “Poisoning” had a bimodal distribution between 0-12 months
  • more commonly seen in 1-3 mos (likely due to parents or siblings) and
  • also in 7mos to 12 mos (likely because of the kids – age when they put things in mouth)

Show References

 How to recognize a truly toxic mushroom ingestion (remember one mushroom can be lethal!):

1) Onset of GI symptoms within 3 hours from time of ingestion: USUALLY NONTOXIC

- Control nausea and  vomiting

- Look for toxidrome: hallucinations, muscarinic symptoms, lethargy

2) Onset of GI symptoms greater than 5 hrs is associated with more toxic mushrooms

- High degree of suspicion for a cyclopeptide mushroom (Amanita phylloides)

- Follow liver enzymes and consier referral to liver transplant center