UMEM Educational Pearls - Pediatrics

  • acute gastroenteritis is a self-limited illness
  • however, damage to the brush border of the small intestine mucosa where lactase is present may lead to a secondary lactase deficiency and subsequent inability to digest lactose properly
  • partially or minimally digested lactose moves into the colon where it is fermented by enteric bacteria resulting in hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and acids
  • these byproducts result in symptoms reported for those with lactase deficiency: cramps, abominal pain and distension, and flatulence
  • the increased solute load in the large intestine leads to increased osmotic pressure, causing watery diarrhea
  • early refeeding following gastroenteritis is recommended, but many clinicians recommend dairy restricted diets acutely

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•Hemophilia A is the deficiency of factor VIII, hemophilia B, the deficiency of factor IX.  In this disease, thrombin is not formed by VIIIa or Ixa
•Emergent presentations are due to bleeding. Hemophiliac joints have a higher tendency to bleed, because synovial cells make more tissue factor pathway inhibitor, and so have higher Xa inhibition.
•Especially in severe hemophilia, alloantibodies can develop that neutralize factor VIII.  Presence of an inhibitor may mean decreased responsiveness to treatment with factor concentrate.  Factor VIII in high doses may overcome this.
Labs:
•Hemoglobin, hematocrit, platelets, PT, INR are likely to be normal.  PTT may be normal or prolonged, it is more likely prolonged in severe disease. Draw 2 extra blue-top tubes to be spun and frozen for inhibitor assays.
Management:
•Several studies have shown the safety and efficacy of NSAIDs for pain control for arthritis in hemophiliacs.  However, these studies tend to be small and in select groups of hemophiliacs, under careful supervision.
•DDAVP can be useful in mild hemophilia.  FFP and cryoprecipitate are not used, due to concerns for volume overload and viral transmission.  Recombinant FVIII concentrates are the treatment of choice.  1U/kg will increase plasma levels by 2%.   The severity of the bleeding dictate the goal serum percentage (30-100%) and the time (hours –days) it should be kept at this level.  
•Consult the blood bank and hematology early, for optimal management.


Children & Appendicitis 

  • Vomiting may be the first sign. 
  • Children may not experience anorexia and may actually request food. 
  • Most young children have perforation at the time of diagnosis.
  • Children younger than 2 years of age may have generalized symptoms such as irritability and tachypnea
  • Ultrasonography is useful in evaluation of thin children but is very operator dependent.
  • CT with oral contrast and i.v. contrast may be needed to differentiate intraabdominal structures in thin children


Category: Pediatrics

Title: Growing Pains

Posted: 2/10/2012 by Rose Chasm, MD (Updated: 10/15/2024)
Click here to contact Rose Chasm, MD

  • diagnosis of exclusion
  • bilateral leg pain only in the evening/night
  • should NOT have a limp, pain, or symptoms during the day
  • completely normal physical exam
  • no systemic symptoms, localizing signs, joint involvement, or limitation of activity
  • look for something else if there is anything wrong on review of systems, examination, or imaging studies

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Potential Causes of Neonatal Apnea and Bradycardia

• Central nervous system  

Intraventricular hemorrhage, drugs maternal/fetal, seizures, hypoxic injury, herniation, neuromuscular disorders, brainstem infarction or anomalies (e.g., olivopontocerebellar atrophy), general anesthesia.

• Respiratory

Pneumonia, obstructive airway lesions, upper airway collapse, atelectasis, extreme prematurity  (<1,000 g), phrenic nerve paralysis, severe hyaline membrane disease, pneumothorax, hypoxia, malformations of the chest.

• Infectious

Sepsis, meningitis (bacterial, fungal, viral), RSV

• Metabolic

Hypoglycemia, hyper/hyponatrmia,  hyperammonemia, decreased organic acids, hypothermia.

• Cardiovascular

Hypotension/hypovolemia, heart failure, PDA, anemia, vagal tone.



Category: Pediatrics

Title: Omphalitis (submitted by Jim Lantry, MD)

Keywords: infectious disease, neonatal infections, umbilical disorders (PubMed Search)

Posted: 1/20/2012 by Mimi Lu, MD
Click here to contact Mimi Lu, MD

Omphalitis is an infection of the umbilical cord that progresses to invade the surrounding subcutaneous tissue, fat and abdominal wall musculature.  Anatomical defects such as a patent urachus or immulogical defects (LAD or neutropenia) should be suspected for severe, protracted omphalitis or for failure of cord separation beyond 2 weeks of life.
o   Incidence: developed countries the incidence is 0.5-1% of births; mean age of 3.2 days of life
o   Risk factors: a non-sterile delivery, maternal genital tract infection, prolonged rupture of membranes, prematurity, low birth weight, umbilical vein catherization and inappropriate stump hygiene.
o   Signs: periumbilical edema, erythema, tenderness and/or discharge
o   Pathogens: Staph epidermis, group A or group B Strep (perinatally), E-coli, Klebsiella or Pseudomonas. Tetanus is a possibility in developing countries
o   Complications: necrotizing fasciitis, myonecrosis, peritonitis, portal vein thrombosis, abscess, spontaneous bowel evisceration          
o   Treatment: septic work-up with culture of all fluids (urine, blood CSF) and implementation of broad spectrum antibiotics and aggressive fluid resuscitation
 
References:
1) Lee PPW, Lee TL, Ho MHK, Chong PCY, So CC, Lau YL. An Infant with Severe Congenital Neutropenia Presenting with Persistent Omphalitis: Case Report and Literature Review. Hong Kong Journal of Pediatrics. 2010. 15(4): 289-298
2) Louie JP. Essential Diagnosis of Abdominal Emergencies in the First Year of Life. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America. 2007. 25:1009-1040


There are limited direct comparisons of (intravenous (IV) vs. intramuscular (IM) ketamine for pediatric procedural sedation in the emergency department. The only RCT comparing IV and IM ketamine was by Roback et al. and compared an IV dose of 1mg/kg vs. IM 4mg/kg. The study authors reported less procedural pain with IM administration compared with IV.  However, vomiting occurred more frequently in the IM group, 26.3% compared to 11.9% in the IV group and recovery time was 49 minutes shorter with IV vs IM use.

 
Bottom line: Ketamine may be administered via both IM and IV routes.  IM administration is associated with higher incidence of vomiting, may require repeat dosing, and is associated with longer recovery times.  Age greater than 5 years may predispose to a higher incidence of vomiting.  However, it may be useful for minor procedures where IV access may be difficult or traumatic for the patient. 
 

Route          Onset          Duration             Dose

  IM            3-5 min         20-30min         3-5 mg/kg

  IV             1 min            5-10 min          1-2 mg/kg

 

References: 
1) Deasy C, Babl F. Intravenous vs intramuscular ketamine for pediatric procedural sedation by emergency medicine specialists: a review. Pediatric Anesthesia 2010; 20:787--96.
2) Clinical Procedures in Emergency Medicine, 4th Edition (2004).
3) Green SM et al. Intramuscular ketamine for pediatric sedation in the emergency department: safety profile in 1,022 cases. Ann Emerg Med. 1998 Jun;31(6):688-97.
4) McGlone R. Emergency sedation in children. Utility of low dose ketamine. BMJ. 2009 Dec 22;339.
5) Roback MG et al. A randomized, controlled trial of i.v. versus i.m. ketamine for sedation of pediatric patients receiving emergency department orthopedic procedures. Ann Emerg Med. 2006 Nov; 48(5):605-12.


Category: Pediatrics

Title: Bechet Disease

Posted: 12/30/2011 by Rose Chasm, MD (Updated: 10/15/2024)
Click here to contact Rose Chasm, MD

  • vasculitis of small vessels with neutrophilic infiltration of venules and arterioles
  • classic triad:  painful recurrent oral and genital ulcers with inflammatory eye disease
  • key finding of recurrent buccal apthous ulcers (nearly 100% of patients)
  • diagnosis is made when recurrence of oral ulceration occurs at least 3 times in 1 year plus 2 of the following: recurrent genital ulceration , eye lesions, skin lesions, or positive pathergy test.
  • initial ED treatment is corticosteroids (oral or topical).  Reserve colchicine and pentoxifylline for ulcerative maifestations.

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: Pediatric forearm fractures (submitted by Emilie Cobert, MD, MPH)

Keywords: Bayonet, fracture reduction technique, radius (PubMed Search)

Posted: 12/16/2011 by Mimi Lu, MD
Click here to contact Mimi Lu, MD

Pediatric forearm fractures:

- 75% occur at the distal forearm, often include both radius and ulna
- Risk factor for failure of closed management: increased initial fracture displacement
- Increasing use of operative management for these unstable fractures due to unsuccessful closed reduction
- Bayoneted fracture (two fracture fragments that lie next to each other rather than in end-to-end contact) often require pin repair.
- Attempt closed reduction in ED with such maneuvers as traction-countertraction, can be aided by finger traps.
- Other newer techniques include Lower Extremity-aided Fracture Reduction (LEAFR) maneuver (Eichinger, 2011) which utilizes the unaided single provider's lower extremity to place counter-traction on the arm while using dominant hand of provider for traction and the free second hand of provider to realign the deformity (place your flexed knee interlocked just proximal to patient's flexed elbow)
- Splint distal forearm fractures in pronation in long-arm cast.
 
Bottom line: The LEAFR is a newer clinically effective technique for reduction of bayoneted distal radius fractures in children for single providers resulting in decreased rates of operative management.
 
 
References:
Eichinger, JK, et al. A New Reduction Technique for Completely Displaced Forearm and Wrist Fractures in Children: A Biomechanical Assessment and 4-year Clinical Evaluation. J Pediatr Orthop. 2011 Oct-Nov;31(7):e73-9.


  • causes gastric outlet obstruction and vomiting
  • 1 in every 500 infants; with a 4:1 male-to-female ratio and a family history in another sibling
  • symptoms begin 2-4 weeks after birth, with projectile NON-bilious vomiting
  • firm, mobile, nontender, olive-shaped mass in right hypochondrium or epigastric area
  • diagnosis confirmed with US or upper GI series
  • treatment is a pyloromyotomy, but fluid and electrolyte replacement is vital in ED

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You just finished assessing a 6 month old in the Pediatric ED who can’t move his right leg.  You suspect child abuse.  You’re ready to order labs, a head CT, ophtho consult, skeletal survey and call Child Protective Services.   While your doing all of this, your medical student asks you, “What exactly are you looking for on the skeletal survey?”

A skeletal survey is mandatory for cases of suspected child abuse in children under the age of 2 years.  Approximately 60% of the fractures seen in abused children are younger than 18 months old.

When you are looking at a skeletal survey, carefully look for the following:

1. Multiple, healing fractures of various ages

2. Rib fractures, especially in the posterior ribs

3. Metaphyseal chip and buckle fractures

4. Spiral fractures in long bones (especially in children that can’t walk)

5. Skull fractures which are not simple and linear

6. Scapula fractures

 

More to come about child abuse…. 

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Most of us are at least vaguely familiar with Kawasaki Syndrome as an acute vasculitis of small and medium-sized vessels, predominantly occurring in patients aged 6 months to 5 years.

Classic Kawasaki is diagnosed by fever for greater than 5 days plus 4 out of 5 classic signs.

  • Mnemonic: “CRASH and burn”
  • Conjunctivitis (bilateral and nonexudative)
  • Rash (polymorphous, ie can look like anything)
  • Adenopathy (cervical, usually greater than 1.5cm and usually unilateral)
  • Strawberry tongue or other oral changes (lip swelling/fissuring/erythema/bleeding, oropharyngeal hyperemia)
  • Hands and feet (induration and erythema, desquamation is a late sign)
  • Burn = fever lasting for >5 days

But what about an 8 month-old with 6 days of fever plus nonexudative conjunctivitis, unilateral cervical adenopathy and a diffuse maculopapular rash?   Send some labs!

Incomplete Kawasaki is defined as fever for >5 days with 2 or more of the classic findings plus elevated ESR (>40mm/hr) and CRP (>3.0mg/dL).  It is most common in infants under 12 months of age. 

Disposition for the 8 month-old?

  • If ESR and CRP are not elevated, discharge to home with f/u in 24 hours to re-evaluate symptoms and for repeat labs if fever persists.
  • If ESR and CRP are elevated, the child needs an echo to evaluate for coronary artery aneurysms. 

 If the echo is normal, follow up in 24-48 hours and will need a repeat echo if fever persists.

TREAT kids with IVIG and aspirin (which generally means admission) if echo is positive, or with normal echo and the presence of 3 or more supplemental criteria:

  • Anemia for age
  • Elevated ALT
  • Albumin<3.0mg/dL,
  • Sterile Pyuria (>10 WBC/hpf)
  • Platelets >450K after 7 days
  • WBC >15,000
 
References:
1) Falcini F, Capannini S, Rigante D. Kawasaki syndrome: an intriguing disease with numerous unsolved dilemmas. Pediatric Rheumatology 2011;9:17
2) American Academy of Pediatrics. Kawasaki Disease. In: Pickering LK, Baker CJ, Kimberlin DW, Long SS, eds. Red Book: 2009 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 28th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2009. 
 
 

Attachments

1111251332_2009_Red_Book.doc (384 Kb)



Category: Pediatrics

Title: Child Passenger Safety

Keywords: Passenger Safety (PubMed Search)

Posted: 11/18/2011 by Mimi Lu, MD
Click here to contact Mimi Lu, MD

Child Passenger Safety.

Perhaps one of the greatest contributions emergency physicians can provide to society comes in the  form of anticipatory guidance. It is important to take the opportunity during the ED encounter to provide information to parents to prevent future injuries. Child passenger safety is one clear example. With over 330,000 pediatric visits to EDs  across the US annually attributed to motor vehicle collisions, the need to provide clear recommendations to parents on how to restrain their children in their vehicle is paramount. Despite a recent survey of over 1000 EPs in which 85% of respondents indicated child passenger safety should routinely be a part of pediatric MVC discharge instructions, only 36% of EPs knew the latest guidelines on child passenger safety.   The American Academy of Pediatrics provides such guidelines. These recommendations were recently adjusted in 2011.

(1) Infants up to 2 years must be in REAR-facing car seats
(2) Children through 4 years in forward-facing car safety seats
(3) Belt-positioning booster seat for children through at least 8 years old
(4) Lap-and-shoulder seat belts for those who have outgrown booster seats. How does one know when the child has outgrown the booster seat?
     a. Can the child sit with his/her knees bent at the edge of the seat?
     b. Does the shoulder belt lie across the middle of the chest/shoulder?
     c. Does the lap belt lie across the upper thighs and not the abdomen?
(5) Children younger than 13 should sit in the rear seats

Special Thanks to JV Nable, MD, EMT-P for writing this pearl.

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: Newborn Erb Paralysis

Posted: 11/11/2011 by Rose Chasm, MD (Updated: 10/15/2024)
Click here to contact Rose Chasm, MD

  • ocurs with significant lateral traction during vaginal delivery of an infant
  • results in damage to the upper part of the brachial plexus, especially the 5th and 6th cervical roots
  • results in paralysis of hte shoulder and arm
  • the affected arm is held in adduction and internal rotation
  • most resolve spontaneoulsy, but some may require physical therapy after 2 weeks
  • surgery is rarely required, and has poor results
  • always palpate for ipsilateral clavicel fractures!

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: Trick of the Trade: foreign body removal

Keywords: dermabond, glue, foreign body, (PubMed Search)

Posted: 10/21/2011 by Mimi Lu, MD
Click here to contact Mimi Lu, MD

Next time you have a small round foreign body that you can't grasp with alligator forceps in the nose or ear.  Advantages: non-traumatic and easy to use. Disadvantages: foreign body must be visualized, adhesion of glue to patient
 
Technique
- apply a small amount of cyanacrylate (e.g. Dermabond) to the wood or plastic end of of a cotton-tipped applicator 
 - under direct visualization, slowly advance the tip until contact is made with the foreign body and allow 30-60 seconds of dry time before extracting the object in a gentle smooth motion .
 
Helpful hints:
- This technique requires: a cooperative patient, good lighting, direct visualization and manual dexterity... if any of the these are missing, you may want to consider an alterative method.-
- The foreign body should be dry and easily visualized so that the risk of accidental contact with the mucosa or tympanic membrane is avoided.
 
Picture submitted by Dr. Adam Friedlander
 
 
Reference:
Davies P and Benger J. Foreign bodies in the nose and ear: a review of techniques for removal in the emergency department. J Accid Emerg Med 2000;17:91–94


Category: Pediatrics

Title: Cerebral Edema in Pediatric DKA

Posted: 10/14/2011 by Rose Chasm, MD (Updated: 10/15/2024)
Click here to contact Rose Chasm, MD

  • 0.3-1.5% of all pediatric DKA cases
  • 21-24% mortality rate
  • usually at 4-12 hours after therapy starts
  • risk factors:  <5years old, new onset diagnosis, increased BUN at presentation, severity of acidosis at presentation, bicarbonate use
  • have low threshold to diagnose and treat:  don't wait to treat for the CT!


Category: Pediatrics

Title: PD-associated peritonitis

Posted: 10/8/2011 by Vikramjit Gill, MD (Updated: 10/15/2024)
Click here to contact Vikramjit Gill, MD

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is a commonly used form of dialysis for pediatric patients with end-stage renal disease, particularly in children less than five years of age.

One well known complication to this mode of dialysis is PD-associated peritonitis.

Children may present with fever, abdominal pain and a cloudy dialysate.

If peritonitis is suspected, obtain sample of dialysate fluid and send for cell count, Gram’s stain and culture.

Cell count in PD-associated peritonitis is usually WBC >100 with >50% neutrophils.

Both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms are involved with PD-associated peritonitis .  Keep both MRSA and Pseudomonas in mind.

In the ED, empiric therapy should cover both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. Initiate antibiotic therapy with vancomycin and either a third-generation cephalosporin (ceftazidime) or aminoglycoside, respectively.

For PD-associated peritonitis, intraperitoneal (IP) administration of antibiotics is preferred over IV.

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Category: Pediatrics

Title: Pediatric Concussions - submitted by Mike Santiago

Keywords: Concussion, sports injury, TBI, return to play (PubMed Search)

Posted: 9/30/2011 by Mimi Lu, MD
Click here to contact Mimi Lu, MD

You are seeing a high school football player following a head injury.  After your exam or head CT, you determine the child to have had a mild traumatic brain injury (aka concussion).  You are ready to discharge him home when the parents or coach ask you when he can return to playing football.

A concussion is a form of functional, rather than structural, brain injury that displays no evidence of injury on structural neuroimaging.   Symptoms include transient loss of consciousness, amnesia, vomiting, headache, poor school work, sleep changes, and emotional lability.  Remember that children’s brains (even adolescents) are still developing, and are more prone to prolonged recovery following injury.

Recovery of symptoms usually follows a sequential course.  Current guidelines recommend a stepwise return to play (aka concussion rehabilitation) involving both physical and cognitive rest (e.g. no texting, video games, limited school work).  Once asymptomatic, the patient goes through each stage with at least 24 hours between stages.  If symptoms return during a stage, then the patient is expected to return to the previous stage for 24 hours before attempting the higher stage again. 

 

Return to Play Guidelines:

Rehabilitation stage

Functional Exercise

  1. No activity

Complete physical and cognitive rest

  1.  Light aerobic activity

Walking, swimming, stationary cycling at 70% maximal heart rate, no resistance exercise

  1. Sport-specific exercise

Specific sport related drills but no head impact

  1. Noncontact training drills

More complex drills, may start light resistance training

  1. Full-contact practice

After medical clearance, participate in normal training

  1. Return to play

Normal game play

 

References:

  1. Halstead ME, Walter KD, and The Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness.  Pediatrics. 2010;126:597-615.


Category: Pediatrics

Title: FAST in blunt pediatric abdominal trauma - submitted by John Greenwood, MD

Keywords: ultrasound, intra-abdominal injury, free fluid, blunt trauma (PubMed Search)

Posted: 9/23/2011 by Mimi Lu, MD
Click here to contact Mimi Lu, MD

Focused assessment of sonography in trauma (FAST) has been shown useful to detect clinically significant hemoperitoneum in adults, but not in children.  Several studies, including a meta-analysis have attempted to assess the performance of FAST in identifying children with intra-abdominal injuries (IAIs) from blunt abdominal traumas (BAT).
 
In a prospective observational study on 357 children with blunt abdominal trauma, FAST sensitivity = 52% for significant hemoperitoneum, specificity = 96%, PPV = 48%; NPV = 97%.  In the meta-analysis, the identification of hemoperitoneum using FAST protocol (for intra-peritoneal fluid only) the pooled estimate of sensitivity was 80% and specificity 96%.  For the identification of any IAI using FAST protocol the pooled estimate of sensitivity was 66% and specificity was 93%.
 
 
Bottom line:
In children with BAT, FAST has a low to moderate sensitivity but high specificity to detect clinically important free fluid.  While a positive FAST suggests hemoperitoneum and abdominal injury, a negative FAST cannot be used to reliably rule out IAI.

 

References:
1. Holmes J F, Gladman A, Chang C H. Performance of abdominal ultrasonography in pediatric blunt trauma patients: a meta-analysis. Journal of Pediatric Surgery 2007; 42(9): 1588-1594.
2. Fox JC, Boysen M, et al. Test characteristics of focused assessment of sonography for trauma for clinically significant abdominal free fluid in pediatric blunt abdominal trauma. Acad Emerg Med. 2011 May;18(5):477-82. 


Category: Pediatrics

Title: Pediatric ECG

Posted: 9/9/2011 by Rose Chasm, MD (Updated: 10/15/2024)
Click here to contact Rose Chasm, MD

  • newborns have a thick right ventricle resulting in a mean QRS axis which points anteriorly and to the right demonstrating a right axis deviation (70-180degress) and large R waves in the precordium
  • by 3 months of age, the QRS axis in the frontal plane shifts to the left with a mean of 65degress (0-125degress)
  • by older childhood, the normal mean QRS axis is -30-100degress)
  • thus, with age the R wave decreases in V1 and increases in V6
  • take home:  right-axis deviation is often a normal finding in children and young adults when you see left-axis deviation in children consider tricuspid atresia, atrioventricular septal defects, and LVH as the most associated conditions

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