Parental Knowledge of pediatric concussion

Sample: Parents of children brought to pediatric hospital or outpatient clinics for evaluation of orthopedic injuries.

Participants scored an average of 18.4 (0-25) on knowledge and 63.1 (15-75) on Attitudes toward concussions.

Safest attitudes were seen in white females. Knowledge increased with income and education levels.

Parents from low income or education levels may benefit from additional education in the ED prior to discharge in addition to providing paper information which may not be read or understood.

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Medial elbow pain is common among baseball pitchers and is also seen in other sports including football, javelin and gymnasts.

More than 97% of elbow pain in pitchers is located medially.

The ulnar collateral ligament of the elbow is an important structure in these patients.

http://www.aafp.org/afp/2014/0415/afp20140415p649-f3.jpg

While initially primarily seen in professional throwers, these injuries are now being seen in younger athletes.

Initially, patients may only note changes in stamina or strength of throws.

Later, they will note pain during the acceleration and follow through-phase of throwing

http://stlhealthandwellness.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/elbow03.jpg

The Valgus stress test for UCL deficiency is similar to the valgus test for the knee

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6YvPSVk6G8

Treatment: splinting, ice, NSAIDs

Surgical indications: Failure of non-operative treatment with desire to return to same or higher level competition.

Hook of Hamate Fracture

Rare (2% of all carpal fractures)

Mechanism usually direct blow from a stick sport (golf, hockey, baseball)

Presents with hypothenar pain and pain with gripping activities

Physical examination - local swelling and tenderness to palpation over hook of hamate

Diagnostic test - Hook of hamate pull test

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A-mjRnC1yWQ

XR - standard wrist series but add carpal tunnel view

http://openi.nlm.nih.gov/imgs/512/60/2904904/2904904_256_2009_842_Fig1_HTML.png

http://www.cmcedmasters.com/uploads/1/0/1/6/10162094/7851913.png?359

A traditional ED practice has been to combine promethazine as an anxiolytic adjunct to morphine for patients with musculoskeletal pain (eg back pain).

However, when compared to morphine alone, this combination does not lead to greater analgesia or decrease anxiety. It does however prolong ED length of stay.

This use of this "pain cocktail" is not recommended

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Most common mass in popliteal fossa

Incidence 10 to 58%

Intra-articular pathology results in flow of synovial fluid from the joint into the bursa, forming a cyst

Association with concomitant intra-articular disorders 94%

Possible pathology - Meniscus, ligamentous, arthritis, other osteochondral defects

In children this is not a pathologic finding

Symptoms - Posterior knee bulging, posterior tightness/stiffness esp. with knee flexion

Ultrasound - 100% sensitive/specific

DDx: DVT

Tx: Refer for ultrasound guided aspiration, fenestration and steroid injection

http://www.caringmedical.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Bakers-Cyst-treatment.jpg

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Sodium Supplementation and Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia (EAH) during Prolonged Exercise (ultramarathon running)

Weight loss of around 4% body weight (relative to pre race weight) can be anticipated to maintain euhydration in such a prolonged event

Those who become symptomatic with EAH have either gained weight or lost less that 3-4% body weight

Overhydration rather than inadequate supplemental sodium intake is a greater contributor to the development of EAH

There is a suggested link between EAH and rhabdomyolysis. The mechanism remains unknown and it is unclear which condition may augment the other. Further research is needed.

Take home: Avoid overhydration during prolonged exercise to prevent EAH.

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Handcuff Neuropathy

Compression of the superficial radial nerve against the radius.

Tends to occur with prisoners (too tight cuffs or person struggling)

Usually purely sensory lesion

Nerve regeneration can take 8 weeks (about an inch a month)

Document sensory exam to sharps or 2 point sensation.

DDx: De Quervain's, Carpal tunnel, Gamekeeper's thumb,

No need to splint

Triquetral fractures are the 2nd most common carpal fractures (scaphoid).

Dorsal surface most commonly.

Usually occur from impingement from the ulnar styloid, shear injury or from ligamentous avulsion.

XR: best seen on the lateral projection

http://images.radiopaedia.org/images/902179/42b3487baf4fb66183c51cd982477d_big_gallery.jpg

Remember this injury/radiographic appearance the next time you see an avulsion fracture dorsal to the proximal row of carpal bones on the lateral film but are unsure of the donor site.

A sports hernia is a painful musculotendinous injury to the medial inguinal floor.

It is the result of repetitive eccentric overload to the abdominal wall stabilizers of the pelvis.

It is common in sports that require sudden changes of direction or intense twisting movements.

Despite the term "hernia" in the title, it is not a true hernia as there is no "herniation" of abdominal contents

http://www.ssorkc.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/publagia.gif

Figure description: The upward and oblique pull of the abdominal muscles on the pubis fights against the downward and lateral pull of the adductors on the inferior pubis. This imbalance of forces can lead to injury.

PE: Evaluation of other GU/GYN/other intra-abdominal pathology comes first.

Clinician may note tenderness of the pubic ramus and medial inguinal floor.

Pain is more severe with resisted hip adduction and with resisted sit-up.

Combining these maneuvers (resisted situp while adducting hips) recreates the pathophysiology described above and is a good exam maneuver.

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Colles fracture

Almost 90% of distal radius fractures

Mechanism: Fall on the outstretched, hyperextended, radially deviated wrist with the forearm in pronation

Often seen in older patients and in those with osteoporosis

Distal radius fracture with dorsal angulation/displacement and/or radial shortening. "Dinner fork deformity"

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colles'_fracture#/media/File:Colles_fracture.JPG

Smith fracture (aka reverse Colles fracture)

Mechanism: Fall on the outstretched, flexed, radially deviated wrist with the forearm in pronation

Usually younger patients with high energy mechanism

Distal radius fracture with volar angulation or volar displacement. "Garden spade" deformity

Often unstable requiring ORIF

http://www.radiologyassistant.nl/data/bin/w440/a50979780ec887_Smith'-tek.jpg

Radial styloid fracture aka Chauffeur fracture

Fall causing compression of scaphoid against the styloid with wrist in dorsiflexion and ulnar deviation

Often associated with intercarpal ligamentous injuries (i.e., scapholunate dissociation, perilunate dislocation)

Often requires ORIF

http://images.radiopaedia.org/images/611818/cc52cce7bcfd8c905bcc7b5d2b6a65.jpg

Posterolateral Corner Injury

Hx: hyperextension injury (contact and non contact), varus directed blow to flexed knee, direct blow to anteriomedial knee. Report instability symptoms when knee is in full extension.

PE: Varus stress testing

Varus laxity at 0 indicate LCL and cruciate ligament (ACL/PCL) injury

Varus laxity at 30 indicates LCL injury

Dial test - inspects the external rotation at the knee joint/performed in both 30 and 90 knee flexion. The dial test inspects the external rotation at the knee joint

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pW4yv0zg4RY

Positive at 30 = > 10 external rotation asymmetry = isolated PCL injury

Positive at 30 & 90 = Posterior lateral corner injury and PCL injury

Sx: pain to lateral arm, worse with overhead activity and sleeping/lying on arm

Anatomy: Pain generating structures include the rotator cuff, subacromial bursa, labrum and biceps tendon.

http://www.ortho-md.com/images/proceduresImg/SHOULDER2.jpg

Testing: Neer and Hawking tests

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U8-yLHQ_JaM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OYK5qL2om-c

Done indepedently, Hawkings is more sensitive, however best to combine both tests.

Imaging: not indicated

Tx: rest, ice, physical therapy (modalities), subacromial steroid injection

Posterior Shoulder Dislocations are uncommon (strong supporting structures vs. anterior)

But commonly missed by physicians

Mechanism: Direct blow anterior shoulder/FOOSH with shoulder internally rotated and ADDucted)

May also see with seizure/electric shock (tetanic contraction)

Clinical findings subtle

Shoulder held in ADDuction and internal rotation. Patient unable to externally rotate arm from this position. If habitus allows, anterior shoulder depression/posterior fullness.

Radiology: Decreased overlap between humeral head and glenoid fossa. Proximal humerus fixed in internal rotation looks like a light bulb on a stick.

Y view will show subtle posterior displacement of humeral head (not as dramatic as is in anterior dislocations!)

http://cdn.lifeinthefastlane.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/posterior_shoulder_dislocation_005.jpg

http://eorif.com/Shoulderarm/Images/Shoulder-dislocationP1.jpg

In cases of suspected spinal infection, the sensitivity of an elevated WBC count (35-61%), ESR (76-95%) and CRP (82-98%) may help guide further evaluation or consideration of other entities.

Incorporation of ESR/CRP into an ED decision guideline may help differentiate those patients in whom MRI may be performed on a nonemergent basis.

An elevated ESR (>20 mm/hour) also has a role in the diagnostic evaluation of occult malignancy (sensitivity 78%, specificity 67%).

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The ED clinician must  be able to distinguish between true pathologic back pain and nonorganic back pain.

Waddell’s signs are physical exam findings that can aid in making this important distinction and can be remembered by the acronym “DORST” (Distraction, Over-reaction, Regional disturbances, Simulation tests and Tenderness).

Superficial, non-anatomic, or variable tenderness during the physical exam suggests a non-organic cause.

The clinician may also simulate back pain through provocative maneuvers such as axial loading of the head or passive rotation of the shoulders and pelvis in the same plane. Neither maneuver should elicit low back pain.

There may be a discrepancy between the symptoms reported during the supine and sitting straight leg raise (SLR). The seated version of the test, sometimes termed the distracted SLR, can be performed while distracting the patient or appearing to focus on the knee. Further, radicular pain elicited at a leg elevation of less than 30° degrees is suspicious because the nerve root and surrounding dura do not move in the neural foramen until an elevation of more than 30° degrees is reached.

Sensory and motor findings suggestive of a nonorganic cause include stocking, glove or non-dermatomal sensory loss or weakness that can be characterized as “give-way,” jerky or cogwheel.

Finally, gross overreaction is suggested by the exaggerated, inconsistent painful responses to a stimulus.  

Waddell’s signs, especially if three or more are present, correlate with malingering and functional complaints (physical findings without anatomic cause). When combined with shoulder motion and neck motion producing lower back pain, Waddell’s signs predict a decreased probability of the individual returning to work.

That said, Waddell’s signs should never be used independently because they lack the sensitivity and specificity to rule out true organic pathology. Further, our focus should be on evaluating for medical emergencies. Malingering and psychosocial causes of pain are diagnosis of exclusion. 

Imaging plays an important role in the evaluation of child abuse.

It aids in the identification, evaluation and in treatment.

Additionally, it is often the only objective evidence of abuse available to the courts.

It is often discovered through two means.

1) Injuries/fractures that are inconsistent with the alleged mechanism of injury.

2) Pathognomonic fracture patterns are found on routine radiographs

The ED physician should not attempt to precisely "date" the injury.

That said, soft tissue swelling resolves in 2-5 days. The periosteum becomes radiodense in 7 to 10 days. In subtle fractures this may be the only radiographic finding. If there is no evidence of bone healing (periosteal reaction), the fracture is less than 2 weeks old. Callus formation and resorption of the bone along the fracture line begins at 10 to 14 days. The callus is visible for up to 3 months. Bone remodeling continues for up to one year.

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Sesamoid Injuries

The first MTP joint contains the 2 sesamoid bones. They play a significant part in the proper functioning of the great toe. 30% of individuals have a bipartite medial or lateral sesamoid.

http://www.coreconcepts.com.sg/mcr/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/sesamoid_foot.jpg

Injury can occur from trauma, stress fracture or sprain of the sesamoid articulation or of the sesamoid metatarsal articulation. Overuse injuries tend to occur in sports with a great deal of forefoot loading (basketball/tennis).

SXs: Pain with weight bearing, pain with movement of first MTP, ambulation on lateral part of foot.

PE: Tenderness and swelling over medial or lateral sesamoid. Resisted plantar flexion (flexor hallucis) reveals pain and weakness.

Imaging: plain film with sesamoid view to assess for a sesamoid fracture. Stress fractures may take 3-4 weeks to show on plain film.

http://www.agoodgroup.com/running/Fracture002.jpg

Treatment for fractures and suspected stress fractures involve 4 to 6 weeks of non weight bearing.

LATERAL ANKLE TENDINOPATHY

Hx: subacute onset (weeks) of the pain seen in athletes esp. runners (banked or uneven surfaces).

PE: Tenderness to palpation posterior to the lateral malleolus or over the course of the tendon. Pain worse with resisted ankle eversion from a dorsiflexed postion. Examine for subluxation of tendon.

The diagnosis is made from the above and does not require imaging.

Tx: Rest, conservative care, physical therapy (eccentric exercise focus), ankle taping or lace up brace. Severe cases may even require a walking boot.

http://www.epainassist.com/images/Article-Images/Peroneal_Tendonitis.jpg

Overuse injury

Seen in runners, military recruits (marching), ballet dancers and in jumping sports (heavy landing).

Insidious onset of heel pain, that is worse with jumping then running then later with simple weight bearing.

Tenderness to palpation posteriorly (medially or laterally), and squeezing bilateral posterior calcaneus.

Testing:

XR: May not be positive for 2 to 4 weeks. Sclerotic appearance (vertically oriented) posterior calcaneus.

MRI: high signal T2 at fracture site.

DDx: plantar fasciitis.

Treatment: Reduction of activity if Sxs mild, for severe pain start a trial of non weight-bearing (boot or splint with crutches).

Stretching of calf, achilles, plantar fascia.

Mechanism: Direct blow to anterior thigh (Football/basketball) or from a ball traveling at a high rate of speed (field hockey/lacrosse).

Exam: focal tenderness and edema. Pain may be severe and worse with active contraction and passive stretch. Hematoma may already be present. Amount of passive knee flexion at 24 hours can be a clue to the severity of the hematoma.

Treatment: Crutches if pain with weight-bearing. Ice. Immobilization in 120 degrees of flexion immediately after the injury for the first 24 hours may be beneficial.

-Bandage entire lower limb. Provide crutches and pain medication. Soft tissue therapy is contraindicated for the first 48 hours and when instituted must be gentle and cause no pain. Risk of re-bleeding is greatest in first 7 to 10 days.

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