UMEM Educational Pearls - Pediatrics

Neonatal jaundice- Incidence ~85% of term newborns

Bili levels are EXPECTED to rise during first 5 days of life

Be aware of CONJUGATED hyperbilirubinemias (biliary atresia, infection)

Majority of cases due to increase in unconjugated (indirect) bilirubin 2/2 residual fHgb breakdown and insufficient capacity of hepatic conjugation

Severe hyperbilirubinemia (Tbili >20mg/dL) <2% of term infants 

Acute bilirubin encephalopathy(ABE)- Hypertonia, arching, opisthotonos, fever, high pitched cry

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Kernicterus (5% of ABE)-CP, MR, auditory dysfunction, upward gaze palsy

 

When to refer for phototherapy/exchange transfusion

  1. Reference published guides (attached)
  2. Online calculator- http://bilitool.org/

 

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Typically, if an infant or young child presents to the ED with concern for intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), CT is performed as a rapid diagnostic tool. Now that clinicians are more aware of the radiation associated with head CT, the possible use of ultrasound was studied. Ultrasound is commonly used in the neonatal population for detecting ICH. A study by Elkhunovich et al looked at children younger than 2 years who had cranial ultrasounds preformed. Over a 5 year period, 283 ultrasounds were done on patients between 0 to 485 days old (median 33 days). There were 39 bleeds detected. Ultrasound specificity and sensitivity was calculated by comparing the results with CT, MRI and/or clinical outcome. For significant bleeds, the sensitivity for ultrasound was 81%. The specificity for detecting ICH was 97%.

Only 2 patients in the study were older than 1 year. The proper windows are easiest to visualize in children younger than 6 months.

Bottom Line: The sensitivity of cranial ultrasound is inadequate to justify its use as a screening tool for detection of ICH in an infant with acute trauma, but it could be considered in situations when obtaining advanced imaging is not an option because of availability or patient condition.

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Title: End tidal capnography to exclude DKA in children and adults

Category: Pediatrics

Keywords: End tidal capnography, diabetic ketoacidosis (PubMed Search)

Posted: 3/19/2016 by Jenny Guyther, MD
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

A previous pearl has looked at serum HCO3 as a predictor of DKA (see pearl from 8/21/15). The article by Gilhotra looks at using end tidal CO2 (ETCO2) to exclude DKA. 58 pediatric patients were enrolled with 15 being in DKA. No patient with ETCO2 > 30 mmHg had DKA. Six patients with ETCO2 < 30 mmHg did not have DKA. Other studies done in children have shown similar results.

An article recently published by Chebl and colleagues examined patients older than 17 years with hyperglycemia. In this study, 71 patients were included with 32 having DKA. A ETCO2 >35 excluded DKA in this group while a level <22 was 100% specific for DKA.

Bottom line: ETCO2 >35 mmHg is a quick bedside test that can aid in the evaluation of hyperglycemic patients.

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Perianal Group A Strep is an infectious dermatitis seen in the perianal region that is caused by Group A beta-hemolytic Strep. Children will have a characteristic rash with a sharply-demarcated area of redness, swelling, and irritation around the perianal region. There may be associated swelling and irritation of the vulva and vagina (in girls) and penis in boys. Patients can have bleeding or itching during bowel movements.

The age range is often <10 years of age. There is often an absence of fever or other systemic symptoms.The diagnosis can be confirmed by obtaining a Rapid Strep swab from the area of interest. You can also collect a bacterial culture of the area.

Treatment requires a 14 day course of penicillin. Amoxicillin (40 mg/kg/day divided TID) and clarithromycin are alternative treatments. The additional of topical bactroban (mupirocin) can be effective, but it should not be used as monotherapy. Re-occurrence is common, so close follow-up is key.

 
 

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There is not much data published on susceptabilities of urinary pathogens in infants. What resistance patterns are seen in infants < 2 months in gram negative uropathogens?

A retrospective study of previously healthy infants diagnosed with urinary tract infections in Jerusalem over a 6 year period examined this question. The standard treatment at this hospital included ampicillin and gentamycin for less than 1 month olds and ampicillin or cefuroxime for 1-2 month olds.

306 UTIs were diagnosed

74% were resistant to ampicillin

22% were resistant to cefazolin and augmentin

8% were resistant to cefuroxime

7% were resistant to gentamycin

Of the organisms cultured, 76% were E. coli and 14% were Klebsiella.

Bottom line: Know your local resistance patterns.

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ED study of 60 pediatric patients for procedural sedation

  • Fentanyl 1 mcg/kg was followed by 0.1 to 0.2 mg/kg of etomidate IV.
  • One dose of 0.2 mg/kg IV etomidate was adequate for 39/60 patients
  • 16.4% had respiratory depression
  • Desaturation occured in 23 patients
  • No patient required positive pressure ventilation
  • Average recovery in 21 minutes

Bottom line: Etomidate can achieve effective sedation in children for a short procedure. Although respiratory effects were noted, none of them required assisted ventilation.

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Title: J-Tip: A Tool to Reduce Pain for Pediatric Venipuncture?

Category: Pediatrics

Keywords: Pediatrics, Venipuncture, J-Tip, Jet-Injected, Local anesthesia, Topical anesthesia (PubMed Search)

Posted: 1/2/2016 by Christopher Lemon, MD (Updated: 12/12/2024)
Click here to contact Christopher Lemon, MD

Many providers may not be familiar with the "J-Tip" (National Medical Products Inc, Irvine, CA) which is a needle-free jet injection system that uses air to push buffered lidocaine into the skin. In theory, it provides quick local anesthesia without a needle, making it an ideal tool to reduce the pain of pediatric venipuncture. Maybe you will consider giving it a try?...but what is the data for it?

Studies on the subject to date are few in number and focus on older kids or adolescents. One such example is from Spanos et al, 2008. They conducted a randomized control trial comparing J-Tip buffered lidocaine versus topical ELA-Max for local anesthesia before venipuncture in children 8-15 years old (N=70). They utilized a self-reported pain scoring system and showed a statistically significant reduction of pain immediately after venipuncture for the J-Tip group. 
 
More recently, Lunoe et al sought to assess J-Tip usage in a younger population, ages 1-6 years old (N=205). An observation-based pain scoring system was applied to video playback of the procedure as participants were too young to self-report pain scores. At the study institution, usual care for venipuncture was not ELA-Max-- it was topical vapocoolant (i.e."freezie" spray). Thus, participants were randomized to one of three groups: 1) Control: vapocoolant spray alone, 2) Intervention: loaded J-Tip with buffered lidocaine + a spray of normal saline solution (to simulate vapocoolant spray) , 3) Shamempty J-Tip  + vapocoolant spray. The empty J-Tip was used in the sham group to control for the sound/presence of the device because the scoring system does not differentiate pain from anxiety. They found a statistically significant reduction in venipuncture pain score when using the loaded J-Tip compared to the control or sham. There was no difference across groups in terms of venipuncture success rates or adverse events.
 
The latter study cites the price for each J-tip device between $0.98-$4.10. 

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Title: Beware the inflatable bouncer

Category: Pediatrics

Keywords: inflatable, trauma, bounce house (PubMed Search)

Posted: 12/17/2015 by Jenny Guyther, MD (Updated: 12/18/2015)
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

Inflatable bouncers are becoming more popular. A recent study looked at the patients who presented to an Italian emergency department from 2002-2013 after injuries sustained while using them.
-Males had a slight predominance over females
-Preschool children were the most commonly injured
-Upper extremity was injured more commonly than lower extremity
-Injury occurrence increased each year
Bottom line: Beware the inflatable bouncer and have a high suspicion for upper extremity injuries, especially in preschool children

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Title: Disposition for reduced intussusception

Category: Pediatrics

Keywords: air enema, intussusception (PubMed Search)

Posted: 11/20/2015 by Jenny Guyther, MD
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

You have successfully identified a patient with intussusception. It has been successfully reduced with an air enema on the first attempt by radiology. What do you do with the patient afterwards? Do you place them in the hospital on the general surgery team, observe in the ED or discharge them home?
Recurrence can occur in up to 10% of patients. Absolute indications for admission include perforation, failed reduction and identification of a lead point that requires further investigation. Relative indications for admission include prolonged prodrome, bloody stools or dehydration.
A study in Pediatrics looked at 80 patients over a 2 year period with intussusception. 46 patients had been successfully reduced with an air enema. 30 patients were discharged from the emergency room. One patient returned and required a repeat enema reduction and 6 returned for viral related symptoms. 16 patients were observed and discharged within 23 hours. These patients had no interventions done during their observation period. Median length of stay for those discharged from the ED was 6.8 hours (compared to 5.4 hours for admitted patients). The cost of patients discharged from the emergency department was much less compared to those admitted.
This study suggests that after successful reduction in a well appearing child, a short post-reduction observation period may be safe. Other studies have suggested a 6-7 hour period of observation compared to 23 hours.

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Title: Pediatric Shoulder Dislocations

Category: Pediatrics

Keywords: glenohumoral dislocations, anterior shoulder, orthopedics, pediatrics (PubMed Search)

Posted: 11/6/2015 by Kathleen Stephanos, MD
Click here to contact Kathleen Stephanos, MD

- Anterior shoulder dislocations often require surgical management in young adults due to recurrence, but are less common in pediatric patients, particularly under age 10

- A study this year showed that 14-16 year olds are similar to 17-20 year olds in recurrence risk (around 38%- when non-operative management), and this is especially true of males.

- The recurrence rate is lower in the 10-13 age group, but there are also less dislocations in this group as well, making this group harder to assess

- Remember to consider both chronologic and bone age if you are deciding to refer a patient for outpatient surgery follow up, bone age is more accurate to determine healing and response to non-operative treatment

- Consider early referral for surgical management and counseling regarding recurrence risk in the 14-16 year age group after anterior shoulder dislocations

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Title: Pediatric Urinary Tract Infections (UTI) (submitted by Marina Kloyzner, MD)

Category: Pediatrics

Keywords: UTI, Fever, febrile, AAP, clinical practice guideline (PubMed Search)

Posted: 10/23/2015 by Mimi Lu, MD
Click here to contact Mimi Lu, MD

Fever is the most common presenting symptoms to pediatric emergency departments 10-20%

Of these, 2%-7% have a final diagnosis of a urinary tract infection (UTI).
 
Timely diagnosis and treatment of UTI is important in the pediatric population as it can progress to pyelonephrits which can lead to scarring of the renal parenchyma and end stage renal disease.
 
A challenge for the ED physician is whether or not to pursue the diagnosis of UTI in a febrile child with viral URI. However, multiple studies have shown that having a documented URI does not significantly decrease the chance of having a concomitant UTI. Furtheremore, there is a correletion betweent having RSV bronchiolitis with fever and a concurrent UTI.
 
The latest definition of UTI from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) requires both a urinalysis with pyuria or bacteria and a urine culture with more than 50,000 CFU/mL. 
 
Methods for collecting urine include urethral catheterization, suprapubic aspiration, clean catch collection and sterile urine bag.
 
Contamination rates for these methods are as follows:
  • Urine bag 46%
  • Clean catch 14-26%
  • Catheterization 12-14%
  • Suprapubic aspiration 1-9%
 
Because of the significant rates of contamination, catheterization and suprapubic aspiration are the recommended methods of obtaining urine in children younger than 3 years old.
 

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Title: Seat Belt Sign in Pediatrics

Category: Pediatrics

Keywords: Blunt abdominal trauma, seat belt sign, pediatrics (PubMed Search)

Posted: 10/16/2015 by Jenny Guyther, MD
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

Our suspicion of significant abdominal injury increases when there is bruising across the abdomen in adults after a motor vehicle collision, but what about in children? A PECRAN analysis may have provided us with the answer.

Of 3740 pediatric patients after motor vehicle collision, 16% had a seat belt sign. Seat belt sign was defined as a continuous area of erythema, ecchymosis or abrasion across the abdomen due to the seat belt. 1864 children had CT scans of the abdomen. Intra-abdominal injuries (IAI) were more common in those children with seat belt sign than those without (19% versus 12%). Those with seat belt sign had a greater risk of hallow viscous or mesenteric injuries. There was no increased risk of solid organ injury. 33% of patients with seat belt sign did not have complaints of abdominal pain or tenderness on initial exam (with a GCS of 14 or 15); 2% of these patients underwent operative intervention for their injuries.

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Title: Color-Coded Code Drugs: A Novel Idea in Pediatric Resuscitation

Category: Pediatrics

Keywords: pediatric, code, resuscitation, medication error (PubMed Search)

Posted: 10/3/2015 by Christopher Lemon, MD
Click here to contact Christopher Lemon, MD

A group from Colorado identified the high-stress of pediatric resuscitation as a high-risk setting for possible medication error. As such, they performed a prospective, block-randomized, crossover study with two mixed teams of docs (ABEM certified) and nurses, managing 2 simulated peds arrest scenarios using either:

  1) conventional “draw-up and push” drug administration methods [control] or

  2) prefilled medication syringes labeled with color-coded volumes correlating to the weight-based Broselow Tape dosing [intervention].

The objective was to compare the time of preparation and administration of a medication, as well as to assess dosing errors. Participants were blinded to the purpose during recruitment but unblinded just prior to running the scenarios.

The scenarios included advanced airway management and hemodynamic life support efforts to care for an 8-year-old or 8-month-old manikin. The intervention group received a standard 3-minute tutorial on the use of prefilled color-coded syringes just prior to their scenario. After completing the first scenario, the groups switched, utilizing the other sim with the other method of medication administration. After a 4-16 week “wash out” period, the groups reconvened to reverse the medication administration technique across the same 2 scenarios.

Each Broselow tape color zone corresponds to a narrow range of weights. The authors opted to designate medication dosing errors >10% above or below the correct range as critical dosing errors.

The results? Median time to delivery of all conventionally administered medication doses was 47 seconds versus the prefilled color-coded administration system-- 19 seconds. The conventional administration system saw 17% of doses with critical errors versus none for the prefilled color-coded syringe group.

These prefilled color-coded syringes are not currently manufactured. Should they go into commercial production, the hope is that such syringes would be longer and more narrow than conventional syringes to effectively elongate each color-coded section (the delineations for red and purple on a standard syringe differ by as little as 1/8-3/32 of an inch if you want to make your own!-- see picture).

 

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Title: Amsterdam Pediatric Wrist Rules

Category: Pediatrics

Keywords: wrist, fracture, trauma (PubMed Search)

Posted: 9/18/2015 by Jenny Guyther, MD
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

Is there a set of criteria similar to the Ottawa Ankle or Knee Rule that can be applied to the wrist in children?
The Amsterdam Pediatric Wrist Rules are as follows:
-Swelling of distal radius
-Visible deformity
-Painful palpation of the distal radius
-Painful palpation at the anatomical snuff box
-Painful supination
A positive answer to any of these would indicate the need for an xray.

The study referenced attempted to validate these criteria. This criteria is inclusive of the distal radius in addition to the wrist. The sensitivity and specificity were 95.9% and 37.3%, respectively in children 3 years through 18 years. This model would have resulted in a 22% absolute reduction in xrays. In a validation study, 7/170 fractures (4.1%, 95% CI: 1.7- 8.3%) would have been missed using the decision model. The fractures that were missed were all in boys ages 10-15 and were all buckle fractures and one non displaced radial fracture.

Bottom line: This rule can serve as a guide for when to obtain an xray in the setting of trauma, but it is not perfect.

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Making the wee patient pee – a non invasive urinary collection technique in the newborn

Obtaining a urinary sample in a neonate can be challenging and time consuming. The most commonly used non-invasive technique is urine collection using a sterile bag. This technique is limited by patient discomfort and contamination of the urinary sample. Catheterisation and needle aspiration are other options, but are more invasive.

A prospective feasibility and safety study enrolled 90 admitted infants aged under 30 days who needed a urine sample into the study [1]. They performed the following stimulation technique.

 

1.     Feed the baby through breast-feeding or an appropriate amount of formula for their age and weight.

2.     Wait twenty-five minutes. After twenty-five minutes clean the infant’s genitals thoroughly with warm water and soap. Dry with sterile gauze.

3.     Have an assistant hold a sterile urine container near the infant

4.     Hold the baby under their armpits with their legs dangling (if short handed, parents can do this)

5.     Gently tap the suprapubic area at a frequency of 100 taps or blows per minute for 30 seconds

6.     Massage the lumbar paravertebral zone lightly for 30 seconds

7.     Repeat both techniques until micturition starts. Collect midstream urine in the sterile container

In the study, success was defined as obtaining a midstream urinary sample within 5 minutes after initiation of the stimulation procedure. There was a 86% success rate (n=69/80). Mean time to sample collection was 57 seconds. There were no complications, but controlled crying occurred in 100% of infants.  The study was limited by the lack of a control group. Previous studies have described longer collection times with traditional non invasive techniques, up to over an hour [2].

Conclusion

Consider the above mentioned stimulation technique to obtain a urinary sample in the neonate.

 

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Title: Do you really need a VBG in DKA in children?

Category: Pediatrics

Keywords: VBG, DKA, acidosis, hyperglycemia (PubMed Search)

Posted: 8/21/2015 by Jenny Guyther, MD
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

The answer may be no, as long as you have a serum HCO3. In this retrospective study, linear regression was used to to assess serum HCO3 as a predictor of venous pH. Logistic regression was also used to evaluate serum HCO3 as a predictor of DKA. Using a HCO3 cutoff of <18 mmol/L had a sensitivity of 91.8% and specificity of 91.7% for detecting a pH <7.3. A HCO3 < 8 had a sensitivity of 95.2 % and specificity of 96.7 % for detecting a pH <7.1.

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A recent meta-analysis published in Pediatrics reviews the diagnostic accuracy of lung ultrasound for pneumonia. According to the commentary, pneumonia is the leading cause of illness and death in children worldwide; it accounts for 18% of the total number of deaths in children <5 years, more than TB, AIDS, and malaria combined.

They performed a systematic search on several major databases using a combination of controlled keywords for age <18 years, pneumonia, and ultrasound. Of the initially 1475 identified studies, 8 were ultimately chosen for further evaluation.

Characterizing the meta-analysis:

- Three were conducted in the ED, 2 on the wards, 1 in the PICU and 2 in the NICU.

- Of the 765 children encompassed, the mean age was 5 years and they were 52% boys.

- Five of the 8 studies noted using highly skilled sonographers.

- The studies originated from Italy (5), US (1), China (1) and Egypt (1).

- All studies used CXR +/- clinical criteria as the diagnostic standard; LUS assessment was blinded to associated CXR results in 7 of 8 studies.

Results:

- LUS in the diagnosis of pediatric pneumonia had an overall pooled sensitivity of 96% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 94-97%) and specificity of 93% (95% CI: 90-96%).

- Positive and negative likelihood ratios were 15.3 (95% CI: 6.6-35.3) and 0.06 (95% CI: .03-0.11), respectively. For reference, remember that an LR >1 indicates an increased probability that the target disorder is present and >10 is a large or often conclusive increase in the likelihood of disease. Likewise, an LR <1 indicates a decreased probability that the target disorder is present and <0.1 is large or often conclusive decrease in the likelihood of disease.

- The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was 0.98. The ROC curve represents a measure of the accuracy of a test, >0.9 is considered to be excellent.

- In order to determine whether there are genuine differences underlying the results of the studies (heterogeneity) the I-squared statistic was implemented, with values consistent >0.45, demonstrating significant heterogeneity.

Bottom line: LUS appears to be an accurate test for the diagnosis of pneumonia in children. The limitation of this meta-analysis is mainly in the small number of studies and the significant heterogeneity between them, likely due at least in part to the fact that they used CXR +/- clinical data as the diagnostic standard. Nevertheless, the results provide evidence for the use of LUS as a cost-effective tool that potentially eliminates ionizing-radiation from the work-up of pediatric pneumonia and has application potential in resource-limited settings.

 

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Post- streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) is an inflammatory reaction of the kidneys following infection with group A strep, and can occur sub clinically or have a severe presentation requiring admission, Nephrology consult, and careful management.

This diagnosis should be considered in any child between ages 2-12, or adults over 60, presenting with sudden unexplained hematuria or brown urine.  Patients may also present with generalized edema secondary to urinary protein loss, hypertension, and acute kidney injury.  Since kidney involvement usually trails the throat injection by 2-3 weeks or more, the patient and their family may not relate the two symptoms.  A previous or current diagnosis of strep throat is not necessary to consider a patient for PSGN, since they may test negative by throat culture at the time of urinary and renal symptoms

When considering this diagnosis, the EM physician should order the following lab tests:
- Urinalysis (for casts and protein)
- Creatinine
- ASO Titer (or full streptozyme assay of 5 tests including ASO)
- Complement C3, C4, C50

Treatment is primarily supportive, and many cases will be mild enough to discharge home with pediatrician or Nephrology follow up.  However, some cases may warrant admission for AKI, pulmonary edema, or cerebral edema.  Edema can be managed with sodium restriction and loop diuretics.  Hypertension can be managed with anti hypertension medications.

Renal biopsy can confirm the diagnosis with the presence of epithelial crescents in the glomeruli, but this is only necessary in severe cases where it is important to determine the etiology of the nephritis.
 

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Previous pearls have focused on diagnosing appendicitis in children including the use of the pediatric appendicitis score and the Alvarado score. Many facilities have begun using focused ultrasound as the initial step in diagnosing appendicitis whilean aging to avoid radiation. The question remains what to do with an indeterminate ultrasound (when the appendix can not be visualized)? The retrospective study cited looked at combining a low Alvarado score (less the 5) with an indeterminate ultrasound and showed a negative predictive value of 99.6%. A total of 522 children were included in this study. 390 of these children had inconclusive ultrasounds. Only 1 patient with a low Alvarado score and inconclusive ultrasound has appendicits. Only children who had surgery or clinical follow up were included.

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Title: Pediatric Migraine Therapy

Category: Pediatrics

Keywords: migraine, sodium valproate, headache (PubMed Search)

Posted: 6/19/2015 by Jenny Guyther, MD
Click here to contact Jenny Guyther, MD

Sodium valproate (VPA) had been studied and found to be effective in the adult population for migraines, but not in the pediatric population.  This article was a small (12 patient) retrospective study of pediatric migraine patients looking at pain scores before and after VPA administration.  Prior to VPA, patients received NSAIDs, dopamine antagonists, IV fluids and narcotics.  Mean pain reduction prior to VPA was 17%.  After VPA, pain scores were reduced by an additional 36%.

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