UMEM Educational Pearls - By Brian Corwell

The long head of the biceps originates from the glenoid tubercle and superior labrum. 

Rupture of the proximal biceps tendon comprises 90-97% of all biceps ruptures

Often in men aged 40-60y

     - Almost exclusively involves the long head.

     - Aka "Popeye Arm" (distal contraction of the muscle belly)

-          May be acutely traumatic or microtears & age associated degeneration

-          Minimal loss of function because short head of biceps remains attached

-          Many patients can be treated non operatively

-          Most asymptomatic after 4-6 weeks

-          Place in sling, ice, analgesia

-          Refer to ortho for re-evaluation and determination of operative versus conservative management

http://imaging.birjournals.org/content/15/4/193/F7.large.jpg

Metaphyseal bucket handle and corner fractures are almost pathognomonic for child abuse

These injuries were originally identified by clinicians evaluating children with subdural hematomas

These injuries are typically seen in the ankles, knees, elbows and wrists

Violent twisting, shaking, or pulling across a joint creates shearing forces across the weak epiphyseal growth plate and metaphysis

This leads to

1)      A thin rim of mineralized metaphyseal bone aka  “bucket handle”  

http://rad.usuhs.mil/rad/home/peds/bucketarrow.jpg

OR

2)      Small flecks of bone from the metaphyseal corner adherent to periosteum

http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcT0kZ3VR1f7MwRj7oIa6jaYVp_-f8kZ1NhSbw4kCTRGNLDJ1pKK9g

The Weber classification system

A commonly used, simple, easily remembered system used to describe ankle fractures. The system focuses on the integrity of the syndesmosis.

http://www.accessemergencymedicine.com/loadBinary.aspx?fileName=simo_c017f013t.gif

  - TYPE A:  fibula fracture below the ankle joint/syndesmosis (which is intact). Deltoid ligament intact. Medial malleolus can be fractured. Usually treated with closed reduction.

http://www.gentili.net/image1.asp?ID=-241442344&imgid=AnkleWeberAAP600.jpg&Fx=Weber+A+Fracture

  - TYPE B:  is a transsyndesmotic fracture with usually partial rupture of the syndesmosis (though may be intact). No gross widening to the tib/fib articulation.. Deltoid ligament intact. Medial malleolus often fractured.  Variable stability. Any clinical or radiographic injury to the medial joint complex make this an unstable fracture

http://www.gentili.net/image.asp?ID=145&imgid=AnkleWeberBmortise600.jpg&Fx=Weber+B+Fracture

  - TYPE C:  Fibular fracture above the level of the syndesmosis with usually a total rupture of the syndesmosis (seen as widening of the distal tib/fin articulation), resulting in instability of the ankle mortise. Associated with medial malleolus fracture or deltoid ligament injury. Unstable.

http://www.gentili.net/image1.asp?ID=146&imgid=anklewebcapoblx2600.jpg&Fx=Weber+C+Fracture

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Arthrocentesis of the Wrist

First locate and feel comfortable identifying two important landmarks:

1) Lister's tubercle is an elevation found in the center of the dorsal aspect of the distal end of the radius

http://www.aafp.org/afp/2004/0415/afp20040415p1941-f2.jpg

2) The extensor pollicis longus (EPL) tendon runs in a grove just radially to Lister's tubercle. Active extension of wrist and thumb aid with identification.

http://www.rad.washington.edu/academics/academic-sections/msk/muscle-atlas/upper-body/extensor-pollicis-longus/atlasImage

A) Positioning:  Place wrist in ulnar deviation and 20 - 30 degrees of flexion. Apply longitudinal traction to the fingers of the hand.

B) Technique:  Insert a small needle (22g) just distal to the tubercle and on the ulnar side of the EPL tendon.

http://img.medscape.com/pi/emed/ckb/clinical_procedures/79926-79928-80032-1477044tn.jpg

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nlPdb_mymw4&feature=related

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UVG7fZvZD-s&feature=related

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The TFCC (triangular fibrocartilage complex)  is a ligamentous/cartilage like complex similar to the meniscus of the knee located on the ulnar side of the wrist.

http://yanyanxu.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/trifibcc.gif

Hx: ulnar sided wrist pain following trauma and associated with activity related mechanical symptoms such as clicking.

PE:  tenderness to palpation distal to ulnar head or at ulnar styloid . Tenderness against resisted radial deviation.

Plain film may show ulnar styloid avulsion or injury to carpal structures.

Refer to hand/wrist surgeon

Splint in ulnar gutter of long arm spica

MRI or arthrogram are studies of choice.

http://www.cobalthealth.co.uk/MImageGen.ashx?image=%2Fmedia%2F12951%2Fwrist-tfcc-tear-big.jpg&width=170&crop=true

      Anterolateral dislocation is most common (>85%)

As the tib/fib joint has its own synovial cavity, a knee effusion will not be seen

Mechanism: fall on the flexed knee with foot/ankle inversion

Hx: swelling, variable amount of lateral knee pain (anywhere from mild discomfort to inability to bear weight)

PE: Prominence of the fibular head, ankle motion exacerbates knee pain. no associated neurovascular issues

However with less common dislocations (posterior and superior) peroneal nerve injury may occur

Reduction: Place patient supine with knee flexed to 90 degrees. Ankle should be dorsiflexed and externally rotated.

REVERSE THE INJURY: Apply firm posteriorly directed pressure to the fibular head. May head an audible pop as fibular head reduces.  Reassess collateral ligament function.

Saturday night palsy - radial nerve mononeuropathy due to improper arm positioning associated with inebriated sleep.

Physical examination - Wrist and finger drop. 

Patients may have findings suggestive of ulnar nerve co-involvement (interossei testing)  which may falsely lead the examiner to consider a more proximal location for the lesion such as the brachial plexus.

The finger drop caused by the radial nerve lesion places the hand at a mechanical disadvantage.  Adjust for this by examining the hand on a flat surface (stretcher, counter top). With the fingers now supported in extension at the MCP joint  (no longer "dropped"), the interossei can now be tested in isolation and will be normal.

Evaluation of circulatory status is the most important aspect of post reduction care.

Look for hard findings such as cool/cold lower extremity, diminished or absent pulses, pale or dusky skin, paralysis, etc.

However, the absence of these findings should not lull the clinician into a false sense of security. The degree of initial joint deformity, presence of full bounding pulses and warm skin over the dorsum of the foot can all be present in the setting of vascular injury.

The next step will be to perform an ABI (ankle-brachial index).

In one small study, no patient with an ABI greater than or equal to 0.9 had a vascular injury.

Patients with a reassuring physical exam and ABIs should be admitted for vascular checks without further imaging.

Patients with a reassuring physical examination but with an abnormal ABI should have an imaging study obtained (arteriogram/CT angiogram).

Patients with hard findings of a vascular injury should have an emergent vascular surgery consultation.

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Stability from 4 major ligaments (ACL, PCL, MCL and LCL)

Knee dislocation causes injury to multiple ligaments (usually 3 of the above).

Many of these dislocation spontaneously reduce prior to medical evaluation.  Therefore, consider knee dislocation in a patient with multi ligament injury, significant hemarthrosis and bruising.

Vascular injury in up to 40% (popliteal artery)

Nerve injury in up to 23% (peroneal nerve) ((ankle dorsiflexion and sensation to the first web space of the foot))

After reduction, immobilize knee in 15-20 degrees flexion.

The degree of initial deformity, presence of strong pulses, or warm skin cannot be used to rule out popliteal injury.

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Acute brachial plexus neuritis is an uncommon disorder that is easily confused with cervical radiculopathy.

Patients present with a characteristic pattern of acute onset of burning pain.  Pain subsides in days to weeks and is then followed by profound weakness and muscle wasting changes affecting the shoulder  and upper extremity. Weakness is best identified in the deltoid, biceps and rotator cuff muscles. Strength gradually recovers over 3-4 months.

DDX:  The constellation of pain, weakness and sensory loss associated with cervical radiculopathy tend to occur simultaneously.  Also cervical radiculopathy tends to involve only a  single root.

ED treatment is with analgesics and physical therapy and PCP referral for outpatient MRI/EMG. Consider a sling in those with severe shoulder weakness.

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Refractory Osteomyelitis is defined as a chronic osteomyelitis that persists or recurs after appropriate interventions have been performed or where acute osteomyelitis has not responded to surgery and antibiotics.

Case series, animal data and non-randomized prospective trials suggest that the addition of Hyperbaric Oxygen therapy to routine surgical and antibiotic management of previously refractory osteomyelitis is safe and improves the rate of infection resolution.

In patients with osteomyelitis involving spine, skull, sternum,  HBOT  is recommended prior to surgical intervention.  

Typically patients require 20-40 daily dives for sustained therapeutic benefit. 

How does HBOT work in osteomyelitis?

1.       Restoration of normal to elevated O2 level in infected bone.

2.       Leukocyte mediated killing of aerobic bacteria is restored when low O2 tension intrinsic to osteomyolitic bone is restored to physiologic or supra-physiologic levels.

3.       HBOT is noted to exert direct suppressive effects on anaerobic infections.

4.       HBOT augment the transport of certain abx (aminoglycosides and cephalosporins) across bacterial cell wall.

5.       Enhance osteogenesis

6.       Enhance angiogenesis

thank you to Dr. Sethuraman for this pearl

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Emergency physicians are often called upon to provide event coverage for marathons.

Prolonged endurance racing is safe for the majority of participants.

Hyponatremia (8.2% - 13.5%)  - finishing times of greater than 4 hours is an independent risk factor

Hypokalemia – uncommon

Renal function – BUN > 30 or Cr > 1.4 mg/dL (23.6%). There is no data that this is of any clinical significance.

Cardiac Troponin - (11%) had significant increases (troponin T > or = 0.075 ng/mL or  troponin I > or = 0.5 ng/mL). Elevations were more commonly seen with weight loss and increased Cr levels and may be associated with running inexperience (< 5 previous marathons) and young age (< 30 years) though interestingly not with race duration or traditional cardiac risk factors.

Findings are similar for men and women

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Pes Anserine Bursitis is an inflammatory condition of the medial knee

Occurs at the bursa of the pes anserinus which overlies the attachment of the 1) Sartorius 2) gracilis and 3) semitendinosis tendons

Note the location is 2-3 inches below the knee joint on the medial side

http://kneespecialistsurgeon.com/images/uploaded/Pes%20anserinus%20bursitis%20image.jpg

http://eso-cdn.bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/images/bp/en-gb/575-27_default.jpg

Patients complain of pain (especially with stair climbing)

PE: Tenderness to palpation of the bursa with mild swelling

DDx: MCL tear, medial meniscus injury, medial (knee) compartment arthritis

Treatment: Cessation/modification of offending activities, Icing and ice massage, NSAIDs, hamstring stretching and physical therapy. Failure of the above should prompt referral for bursal steroid injection.

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Kienbock’s disease is a rare entity involving collapse of the lunate due to avascular necrosis and  vascular insufficiency.

Occurs most commonly in young adults aged 15 to 40 years.

Cause is unknown but believed to be due to remote trauma or repetitive microtrauma in at risk individuals.

Patients complain of wrist pain, stiffness and swelling

On exam, limited range of motion, decreased grip strength and passive dorsiflexion of the 3^rd digit produces pain.

Dx: plain film in the ED and with MRI as an outpatient.

Tx:  Wrist immobilization with splint and refer to orthopedics. Ultimate treatment is individualized and there is no clear consensus.

Lunate sclerosis seen on plain film

http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/figures/A00017F02.jpg

AVN of the lunate seen on MRI

http://www.assh.org/Public/HandConditions/PublishingImages/KeinbocksMRI_figure3.JPG

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Transient brachial plexopathies aka Burners and Stingers

Brachial plexus injuries are the most common peripheral nerve injuries seen in athletes.

49-65% of all college football players have experienced at least one burner with a 87% recurrence rate.

Injuries most commonly occur at C5-C6 but may involve any root level.

3 Mechanisms: Commonly due to

1) Traction caused by lateral flexion of the neck away from the involved side

2) Compression of the upper plexus between shoulder pads and scapula

3) Nerve compression caused by neck hyperextension and ipsilateral rotation.

CC: Burning or numbness in the neck, shoulder and/or arm

Symptoms are UNILATERAL and tend to usually  last seconds to minutes

Symptoms are reproduced by the Spurling maneuver.

Function gradually returns from the proximal muscle groups to the distal muscle groups.

Because most burners are self-limited, the most important goal is to rule out an unstable cervical injury.

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Meralgia Paresthetica - caused by entrapment of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (LFCN)

The LFCN is responsible for sensation of the anteriorlateral thigh.

http://www.chiropractic-help.com/images/Meralgia-Paresthetica.jpg

NOTE*  It has no motor component!

Associated with pregnancy, wearing tight pants, belts, girdles, and in diabetic and obese patients.

Symptoms include numbness, paresthesias and pain (not weakness). Worse w walking, standing. Better w sitting.

Diagnosis is clinical but may be confirmed with nerve conduction studies

Treatment includes, NSAIDs, injection and surgery for refractory cases.

Gout treatment considerations

Treatment is directed to relieve pain and inflammation

NSAIDs, steroids and narcotics are the mainstays of treatment. All 3 should be used in combination.

Aspirin should be avoided as it may increase uric acid levels

     Note: not in prevention doses (81mg) in treatment doses (325-650mg q4h)

      NSAIDs and steroids take time to be effective.  Provide appropriate analgesia with oral narcotic medication for short term relief

     Don't forget the benefit of splinting a "hot" joint (the ankle or wrist for example)

NSAIDs: Use may be limited in the elderly and in those on coumadin or with peptic ulcer disease. 5-7 days of treatment is usually sufficient. Indomethacin is most commonly used (50 mg TID, which may be tapered to 25 mg TID after 3 days)

Steroids:  Likely more effective than NSAIDs. Oral prednisolone is more effective than naproxen (1). Use prednisone 30-50 mg for 3-5 days without tapering (as we use for asthma). May be useful to supplement with NSAIDs on the tail end to prevent a rebound flare. If tapping the joint consider intraarticular steroids. If there is concern for medical noncompliance with oral steroids consider IM steroids (triamcinolone 60mg or methylprednisolone).

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Gout Part 2

• Hyperuricemia can result from both uric acid overproduction (metabolic/myeloproliferative diseases) in addition to uric acid underexcretion (more common).
• Consider gout in any patient who complains of joint pain that reaches peak intensity over hours and may wake them from sleep. Septic joints tend to reach peak intensity of days.
• Patients may have multi joint involvement, low-grade fever and leukocytosis (factors that may lead one to consider an alternative diagnosis)
• Remember that gout is also a disease of the synovial tissue (tendonitis and bursitis).
• NSAIDs: Traditional preferred treatment for acute gout
• Colchicine: Less effective if the current attack is >24 hours. Use correct dosage for best effect/side effect ratio.
• Steroids: At least as effective as NSAIDs.

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GOUT part 1

Gout is an inflammatory arthritis that classically affects the first metatarsal phalangeal joint

Gout prefers cool ambient temperature hence gouty tophi prefer the great toe (one of the coldest parts of the body) and avoids "warmer" joints such as the hip and shoulder.

Remember that gout can affect other joints as well (elbow, wrist, knee and ankle) and  can cause painful bursitis and tendonitis

Multiple joints can be involved simultaneously (leading to confusing with RA and OA)

The involved joint will often be red, hot, swollen and very painful leading to easy confusion with cellulitis and or a septic arthritis

Diagnose gout by demonstrating monosodium urate crystals in the synovial fluid.

**Remember previous pearl by Dr. Bond regarding the coexistence of gout with septic joint**

Serum uric acid levels are commonly elevated but can be normal or even low

Use caution with this test because asymptomatic hyperuricemia is much more common than gout

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Cubital Tunnel Syndrome aka Radial Tunnel Syndrome

• The most common neuropathy of the elbow
• Entrapment of the ulnar nerve as it passes posterior to the medial epicondyle of the elbow
• HX: medial elbow and forearm pain occasionally associated with ulnar digit paresthesias.
• May be due to trauma, degenerative changes or throwing sports.
• PE:  Pain with elbow flexion. Tenderness to palpation over the cubital tunnel. Positive Tinnel's sign.
• **Up to a quarter of normal asymptomatic patients will have a positive Tinnel's**
• DDx: Ulnar collateral ligament strain/tear and medial epicondylitis
• Tx: Ice, NSAIDs, activity modification, night splints with elbow in 45 degrees flexion and finally surgical decompression or nerve transposition    

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