Category: Pediatrics
Keywords: lactate, sepsis, pediatric (PubMed Search)
Posted: 7/19/2013 by Jenny Guyther, MD
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Lactate is commonly used in the adult ED when evaluating septic patients, but there is a lack of literature validating its use in the pediatric ED. Pediatric studies have suggested that in the ICU population, elevated lactate is a predictor of mortality and may be the earliest marker of death.
A retrospective chart review over a 1 year period showed that one elevated serum lactate correlated with increased pulse, respiratory rate, white blood cell count and platelets. Serum lactate had a negative correlation with BUN, serum bicarbinate and age. Elevated lactate levels were higher for admitted patients. However, the mean serum lacate level was not statistically different between those diagnosed with sepsis and those that were not.
The study included 289 patients less then 18 years who had both blood cultures and lactate drawn. This community hospital had a sepsis protocol in place that automatically ordered a lactate with blood cultures. Only previously healthy children were included.
The study is limited by its small sample size and overall low lactate levels. Despite having a protocol in place, only 39% of patients who had blood cultures drawn had lactate levels available for analysis. The mean serum lacate in this study was 2.04 mM indicating that the study population may not have been sick enough to determine mortality implications. There were no serial measurements.
Bottom line: Consider measuring serum lacate in your pediatric patient with suspected sepsis. Pediatric ICU literature does suggest that an serum lactate as low as 3mM is associated with an increased mortality in the ICU.
Reed et al. Serum Lactate as a Screening Tool and Predictor of Outcome in Pediatric Patients Presenting to the Emergency Department With Suspected Infection. Pediatric Emergency Care. 2013; Vol 29: 787-791.
Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 7/12/2013 by Rose Chasm, MD
(Updated: 4/19/2025)
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Risk stratisfication score introducted by Maden Samuel in 2002.
The Pediatric Appendicitis Score had a sensitivity of 1, speciificity of 0.92, positive predictive value of 0.96, and negative predictive value of 0.99
Signs:
Symptoms:
Laboratory Values:
Scores of 4 or less are least likely to have acute appendicitis, while scores of 8 or more are most likely.
Pediatric Appendicits Score. Samuel, M. J Pedia Surg.37:877-888. 2002.
Category: Pediatrics
Keywords: NIV, intubation (PubMed Search)
Posted: 6/28/2013 by Mimi Lu, MD
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Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 6/14/2013 by Rose Chasm, MD
(Updated: 4/19/2025)
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Pediatrics Text 19th edition, Nelson
Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 6/7/2013 by Jenny Guyther, MD
(Updated: 4/19/2025)
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Infant lumbar puncture is often difficut and may require repeated attempts. The traditional body positioning is lateral decubitus. Previous studies have examined the saftey of having the patient in a sitting position, and neonatal studies have suggested that the subarachnoid space increases in size as the patient is moved to the seated position. A study by Lo et al published last month looked to see if the same held true in infants.
50 healthy infants less then 4 months old had the subarachnoid space measured by ultrasound between L3-L4 in 3 positions: lateral decubitus, 45 degree tilt and sitting upright.
This study found that the size of the subarachnoid space did not differ significantly between the 3 positions. Authors postulated that a reason for increase sitting LP success rate that had been reported in anestesia literature with tilt position could be due to other factors such as increased CSF pressure, intraspinous space widening or improved landmark identification.
Sitting or Tilt Position for Infant Lumbar Puncture Does Not Increase Ultrasound Measurements of Lumbar Subarachnoid Space Width. Pediatr Emer Care 2013;29: 588-591.
Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 4/26/2013 by Mimi Lu, MD
(Updated: 5/24/2013)
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Ultrasound findings of appendicitis
Ultrasound images:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d9jKM6x52nk
http://sonocloud.org/watch_video.php?v=MWHM3D7KD25H
http://sonocloud.org/watch_video.php?v=54862AYWGHGA
Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 5/10/2013 by Rose Chasm, MD
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MedStudy Pediatrics Board Review Core Curriculum
Category: Pediatrics
Keywords: stroke, children, infection (PubMed Search)
Posted: 5/3/2013 by Jenny Guyther, MD
(Updated: 4/19/2025)
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Acute ischemic stroke occurs in 3.3/100,000 children per year. Up to 30% of these are caused by varicella. This can be diagnosed if the patient has had varicella infection within the past 12 months, has a unilateral stenosis of a great vessel, and has a positive PCR or IgG from the CSF.
Treatment includes anticoagulation, acyclovir for at least 7 days and steroids for 3-5 days.
Outcome is normally good and spontaneous improvement can be seen.
Inflammation of other arteries, including other areas of the brain, can also be seen. Treatment options for this can include high dose glucocorticoids and possibly immunosuppresive agents.
Simma et al. Therapy in pediatric stroke. Eur J Pediatr. Published online 06 November 2012.
Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 4/26/2013 by Mimi Lu, MD
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An overweight 5 year old male presents with acute onset abdominal pain that localizes to the right lower quadrant. What are some causes of a limited or nondiagnostic ultrasound study in children?
Acute appendicitis is a time sensitive diagnosis. Ultrasound is frequently used as the initial diagnostic imaging in children. There are several reasons why the appendix may not be visualized, including retro-cecal location, normal appendix, perforation, and inflammation around the distal tip. An additional clinical predictor associated with poor or inconclusive ultrasound results in appendicitis is increased BMI (body mass index).
A study examining 263 pediatric patients found when BMI > 85th percentile and clinical probability of appendicitis was <50%, 58% of ultrasounds were nondiagnostic. Children with a BMI <85th percentile and clinical probability of appendicitis was <50%, had nondiagonstic scans 42% of the time. These trends were also mimicked in the patients with a higher clinical probability of appendicitis. In the child with a nondiagnostic ultrasound, options include observation and repeat ultrasound scan or CT scan, both of which have associated risks.
Category: Pediatrics
Keywords: antibiotics, wait and see (PubMed Search)
Posted: 4/19/2013 by Mimi Lu, MD
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2013 AAP AOM Guidelines UPDATE
Category: Pediatrics
Keywords: Conjunctivitis (PubMed Search)
Posted: 4/5/2013 by Jenny Guyther, MD
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Children frequently present with "pink eye" to the ED. When they do, parents often expect antibiotics. How many of these kids actually need them? Previous studies have shown approximately 54% of acute conjunctivitis was bacterial, but antibiotics were prescribed in 80-95% of cases.
A prospective study in a suburban children's hospital published in 2007, showed that 87% of the cases during the study period were bacterial. The most common type of bacteria was nontypeable H. influenza followed by S. pneumoniae.
Topical antibiotic treatment has been shown to improve remission rates by 6-10 days.
Patel et al. Clinical Features of Bacterial Conjunctivitis in Children. Academic Emergency Medicine 2007; 14:1-5.
Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 3/29/2013 by Mimi Lu, MD
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You have diagnosed an infant or child with pneumonia. How do you decide if they need admission?
The Pediatric Infectious Disease Society and the British Thoracic Society each have guidelines from 2011 to help with this decision.
Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 3/23/2013 by Mimi Lu, MD
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In children, it is important to consider the maximum doses of local anesthetics when performing a laceration repair or painful procedure like abscess drainage. If there are multiple lacerations, or large lacerations, it may be possible to exceed those doses if one is not careful.
Max doses of common anesthetics
For example, in a 20 kg child (an average 5-6 year old), the maximum doses would be:
Pearls:
Category: Pediatrics
Keywords: UTI, urinary tract infection (PubMed Search)
Posted: 3/8/2013 by Lauren Rice, MD
(Updated: 4/19/2025)
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--The diagnosis and treatment of pediatric urinary tract infections (UTIs) can be broken down into different age groups. The AAP has recently updated its recommendations for children age 2 - 24 months.
--In ill-appearing febrile infants age 2 – 24 months, who require early initiation of antibiotics, clinicians should obtain urinalysis and urine culture by catheterization or suprapubic aspiration prior to administration of the first dose of antibiotics.
--Key components of diagnosing a UTI include: urinalysis with the presence of pyuria (>10 WBCs per µL) and bacteriuria. The ultimate diagnosis relies on identification of >50,000 CFUs per mL of a single urinary pathogen in culture.
--Treatment of most UTIs in well appearing infants 2-24 months can be done with oral antibiotics for a course of 7-14 days. Common antibiotics used include: amoxicillin-clavulanate, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, or cephalosporins (cefpodoxime, cefixime) based on local patterns of susceptibility.
--Febrile infants with UTIs should undergo renal and bladder ultrasound (RBUS) to evaluate the renal parenchyma and identify complications of UTI in children who are not responding to treatment within 48 hours.
--Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) to diagnose vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) as a cause of UTI should not be obtained routinely, but only in children with abnormal RBUS or with recurrent febrile UTIs.
Urinary Tract Infection: Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of the Initial UTI in Febrile Infants and Children 2 to 24 Months. Subcommittee on Urinary Tract Infection, Steering Committee on Quality Improvement and Management. Pediatrics 2011; 595 – 610.
Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 2/22/2013 by Mimi Lu, MD
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Luu JL, Wendtland CL, Gross MF, et al. Three percent saline administration during pediatric critical care transport. Ped Emerg Care 2011;27(12):1113-1117
Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 2/1/2013 by Lauren Rice, MD
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This winter season has brought a rise in influenza and RSV activity in Maryland and in many parts of the country. It is also important to remember other potentially lethal infections that are prevalent in the winter and early spring months, such as Neisseria meningitidis. In fact, a recent study2 showed a potential increase in meningococcal disease when influenza and RSV activity is high.
What:
Encapsulated, gram-negative diplococcus
Where:
Found in nasopharyngeal secretions, carrier rates 2-30% in normal populations
Who:
Age of incidence has 2 peaks: children < 2 years old, teens 15-19 years old
Young adults who live in shared housing, such as college dorms and military recruits
Clinical Presentation:
Early non-specific symptoms of URI, fever, malaise, myalgias
Meningitis: non-specific prodrome + headache, stiff neck (not found in younger children who often present atypically with irritability and/or vomiting)
Meningococcemia: above symptoms + hypotension + petechial rash (>60% of patients)
Treatment:
Early (!) antibiotics: 3rd generation cephalosporins (<3mo: cefotaxime; older infants, children, and teens: ceftriaxone); PCN G is antibiotic of choice for susceptible isolates
Early and aggressive management of shock
Prevention:
Tetravalent vaccine, MCV4 (Menactra, Menveo), available for serogroups A, C, Y and W-135 is given routinely at age 11-12 years old with an additional booster at 16-17 years old. MCV4 does not protect against serogroup B which accounts for 30% of infections.
1. Cross JT, Hannaman RA. Infectious Disease. MedStudy Pediatrics Board Review Core Curriculum: 5th edition. 2012; 5-11.
2. Jansen AG, Sanders EA, VAN DER Ende A, VAN Loon AM, Hoes AW, Hak E. Invasive pneumococcal and meningococcal disease: association with influenza virus and respiratory syncytial virus activity?. Epidemiol Infect. Nov 2008;136(11):1448-54.
3. Javid MH. Meningococcemia. Available at http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/221473. Medscape Reference. Last updated Aug. 2. 2012.
Category: Pediatrics
Keywords: magnets, bowel perforation, ischemic necrosis, ingestion (PubMed Search)
Posted: 11/30/2012 by Mimi Lu, MD
(Updated: 1/18/2013)
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Patient: A 10 year old female is brought to the ED after swallowing 2 beads (see image). Based on the findings, what are your concerns and what is the disposition?
Answer: Multiple Magnet Ingestion
The mother was eventually able to produce the magnetic beads ingested at home 2 hours prior to presentation
The ingestion of multiple magnets is a medical emergency. If the 2 magnets separate and reconnect it can lead to:
- pressure necrosis
- bowel perforation
- fistula formation
- and/or bowel obstruction secondary to kinking, inflammatory reaction, and/or internal herniation
Patients with a multiple magnet ingestion should be taken emergently to the OR for endoscopic evaluation.
If the magnets have passed the pylorus, conservative management with laxatives and serial X-rays may be performed, however if their position becomes fixed on serial imaging then an emergent laparotomy may need to be performed for the removal of the FBs before the symptoms and signs occur.
Bottom line: Patients presenting with a multiple magnet ingestion need to be admitted regardless of the FB location. Consult GI and pediatric surgery early, since prompt removal can prevent devastating outcomes. Single magnet ingestions can be managed conservatively with serial exams and imaging.
Reference:
Alzaham AM et al, Ingested magnets and gastrointestinal complications. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health; 43 (2007) 497–498.
Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 1/11/2013 by Rose Chasm, MD
(Updated: 4/19/2025)
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CDC MMWR 1/2011
FDA 12/2012
Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 1/4/2013 by Lauren Rice, MD
(Updated: 4/19/2025)
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Rotavirus is the leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide and a leading cause of infant death in the developing world.
95% of U.S. children have had a rotavirus infection by the age of 5 years.
Most cases occur in late winter and early spring.
Route of transmission is mostly fecal-oral but may be airborne in cooler months.
Most common presenting signs and symptoms include fever (1/3 of cases), vomiting (in the first 1-2 days), and diarrhea (copious, watery, lasting 5-21 days).
Diagnosis is largely based on clinical manifestations, but antigen assays are available and may be useful in patients with extraintestinal complications, such as hepatitis, pneumonitis, or encephalopathy.
Treatment is largely supportive with efforts to maintain hydration.
Prevention is key to disease control and accomplished with good hand hygiene and widespread vaccination.
Newly implemented vaccine programs worldwide have proven to be effective in decreasing hospitalizations and deaths in developing countries.
Cox, Elaine and Christenson, John. Rotavirus. Pediatrics in Review. 2012; 33 (10): 439 - 447.
Category: Pediatrics
Posted: 12/28/2012 by Mimi Lu, MD
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