UMEM Educational Pearls - By Wesley Oliver

Category: Pharmacology & Therapeutics

Title: Order of antibiotic administration can affect compliance with CMS sepsis measure

Keywords: Sepsis, Antibiotics, CMS, Core Measures (PubMed Search)

Posted: 9/1/2018 by Wesley Oliver
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Takeaways

The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) require broad spectrum antibiotics to be administered within 3 hours of presentation of sepsis to be in compliance with the sepsis measure.

Not only do the antibiotics that are chosen determine compliance with this measure, but the order in which antibiotics are given can also significantly affect compliance.

According to CMS, for combination antibiotic therapy, both antibiotics must be started within the three hours following presentation; however, they do not need to be completely infused within this time frame.

Combination therapy typically includes a monotherapy antibiotic (see list in detailed information below) plus vancomycin (daptomycin or linezolid could also be used).

So which antibiotic should be given first?

If a monotherapy antibiotic is given first within the 3 hours of presentation, then compliance for the sepsis measure is met. These antibiotics cover a broader range of bacteria and are typically infused over ~30 minutes, which allows plenty of time for your second antibiotic to be initiated.

If vancomycin is given first, compliance with this measure can become difficult. First, vancomycin has a narrower spectrum of activity and is not a monotherapy antibiotic. Second, vancomycin infusion rates range from 1 to 2 hours. Given that antibiotics are usually given after sepsis is flagged, this infusion rate only gives a short period of time for the second antibiotic to be initiated. Thus, vancomycin should almost always be the second antibiotic infused.

In addition, patients may also have limited intravenous access or antibiotics may not be compatible with resuscitation fluids. All of these factors together must be considered when trying to gain compliance with this measure.

Take-Home Point:

Administer monotherapy antibiotics (e.g. piperacillin/tazobactam and cefepime) prior to administering vancomycin in your septic patients to improve compliance with the sepsis measure.

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Category: Pharmacology & Therapeutics

Title: New-Onset Diabetes with DKA in Adults

Keywords: Diabetes, DKA (PubMed Search)

Posted: 7/7/2018 by Wesley Oliver (Updated: 5/28/2023)
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Takeaways

Pearl submitted by James Leonard, PharmD, Clinical Toxicology Fellow

A 54-year-old male 1-year post-renal transplant arrives to the emergency department in diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). He has no history of diabetes and is not currently taking steroids for immunosuppression. Home medications include tacrolimus, mycophenolate, and hydrochlorothiazide. Is this latent auto-immune diabetes or something else?

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Category: Pharmacology & Therapeutics

Title: Fosfomycin for UTIs

Keywords: Fosfomycin, urinary tract infection, cystitis (PubMed Search)

Posted: 3/3/2018 by Wesley Oliver
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Fosfomycin is an antibiotic infrequently used for the treatment of urinary tract infections (UTIs). It has a broad spectrum of activity that covers both gram-positive (MRSA, VRE) and gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas, ESBL, and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae), which is useful in the treatment of multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Fosfomycin is FDA approved for the treatment of uncomplicated UTIs in women due to susceptible strains of Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis (3g oral as a single dose). Data has also demonstrated that it can be used for complicated UTIs; however, dosing is different in this population (3 g oral every 2-3 days for 3 doses). Fosfomycin is not recommended for pyelonephritis.

The broad spectrum of activity, in addition to only needing a single dose in most cases, makes fosfomycin an attractive option; however, it should be reserved for use in certain circumstances. Fosfomycin should not be considered as a first-line option. It is also more expensive than other medications (~$100/dose) and in countries with high rates of utilization bacteria are developing resistance to fosfomycin. In addition, most outpatient pharmacies do not keep this medication in stock.

Take-Home Point:

Fosfomycin should be reserved for multidrug-resistant UTIs in which other first-line options have been exhausted.

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Category: Pharmacology & Therapeutics

Title: Subcutaneous (SubQ) vs. Intramuscular (IM) Epinephrine in Asthma Exacerbations

Keywords: Epinephrine, Asthma (PubMed Search)

Posted: 1/8/2018 by Wesley Oliver
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Takeaways

Patients with severe asthma exacerbations that are unresponsive to inhaled beta-agonists may require the use of epinephrine to control their symptoms. When patients get to this point what route of administration should be used for the administration of epinephrine?

The most recent asthma guidelines (published in 2007) recommend the use of SubQ epinephrine 0.3-0.5 mg every 20 minutes for 3 doses. Drug references typically list SubQ or IM epinephrine 0.01 mg/kg (~0.3-0.5 mg) every 20 minutes as appropriate routes of administration. There is currently no data demonstrating that one route of administration is better than the other in patients with asthma; however, in other disease states, such as anaphylaxis, IM epinephrine is preferred due to the more rapid and reliable absorption over SubQ administration.

Auto-injectors that administer IM epinephrine 0.3 mg are available. These auto-injectors may decrease the risk of medications error; however, they can be expensive. SubQ administration requires the use of a syringe and a vial/ampule of 1 mg/mL epinephrine.

Bottom Line: Either SubQ or IM epinephrine administration is appropriate for patients with severe asthma exacerbations. The preferred method at a given institution will be dictated by historical practice, risk of medication dosing errors, and drug cost.

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Category: Pharmacology & Therapeutics

Title: Insulin for Hyperkalemia

Keywords: Insulin, Hyperkalemia, Dextrose (PubMed Search)

Posted: 11/6/2017 by Wesley Oliver (Updated: 5/28/2023)
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Strategies for Hyperkalemia Management
Stabilize cardiac membrane	Calcium gluconate
Intracellular movement in skeletal muscles	Albuterol Sodium Bicarbonate Insulin
Potassium excretion	Loop Diuretics Kayexalate Patiromer (chronic use only)
Potassium removal	Dialysis

Insulin mechanism of action for hyperkalemia:

· Binds to skeletal muscle receptors

· Increased activity of the sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphatase and glucose transporter GLUT4

· Glycemic response occurs at lower levels of insulin

· Potassium transport activity increases as insulin levels increase

Patients with insulin resistance due to type-2 diabetes do not become resistant to the kalemic effects of insulin.

Hypoglycemia following insulin administration for hyperkalemia:

· Occurs 1-3 hours post dose, even with initial bolus of dextrose

· The amount of glucose is insufficient to replace the glucose utilized in response to the administered dose of insulin

· Insulin’s half-life is increased in ESRD leading to longer duration of action

A systematic review of 11 studies regarding insulin dosing for hyperkalemia:

· 22 patients (18%) experienced hypoglycemia

· Studies that only gave 25 grams (1 amp) of dextrose had the highest incidence of hypoglycemia (30%)

Tips:

· Consider insulin dose reduction in patients with renal failure

· Use an order set to ensure patients receive appropriate POC glucose monitoring to detect delayed onset of hypoglycemia

· Dextrose 50% (25 grams) should be given to all patients with pre-insulin BG <350 mg/dL

Subsequent PRN dextrose 50% (25 grams) should be used to maintain BG >100 mg/dL after insulin administration

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Category: Pharmacology & Therapeutics

Title: Alpha-Blockers for the Management of Ureteral Stones

Keywords: Ureteral stones, Alpha-blockers (PubMed Search)

Posted: 9/2/2017 by Wesley Oliver (Updated: 5/28/2023)
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Takeaways

Alpha-blockers (tamsulosin, alfuzosin, doxazosin, and terazosin) are antagonists of alpha1A-adrenoreceptors, which results in the relaxation of ureteral smooth muscle. Current evidence suggests alpha-blockers may be useful when ureteral stones are 5-10 mm; however, there is no evidence to support the use of alpha-blockers with stones <5 mm. Patients with ureteral stones >10 mm were excluded from studies utilizing these medications.

The size of most ureteral stones will be unknown due to the lack of need for imaging able to measure stone size. Given that the median ureteral stone size is <5 mm, most patients will not benefit from the use of an alpha-blocker.

Also, keep in mind that the data for adverse events with alpha-blockers used for ureteral stones is limited and that these medications have a risk of hypotension.